The Bronze Age of Eurasia (around 3000-1000 BC) was a period of major cultural changes. However, ... more The Bronze Age of Eurasia (around 3000-1000 BC) was a period of major cultural changes. However, there is debate about whether these changes resulted from the circulation of ideas or from human migrations, potentially also facilitating the spread of languages and certain phenotypic traits. We investigated this by using new, improved methods to sequence low-coverage genomes from 101 ancient humans from across Eurasia. We show that the Bronze Age was a highly dynamic period involving large-scale population migrations and replacements, responsible for shaping major parts of present-day demographic structure in both Europe and Asia. Our findings are consistent with the hypothesized spread of Indo-European languages during the Early Bronze Age. We also demonstrate that light skin pigmentation in Europeans was already present at high frequency in the Bronze Age, but not lactose tolerance, indicating a more recent onset of positive selection on lactose tolerance than previously thought.
We present an individual biography of an adult woman from the 3rd millennium BC from the Eastern ... more We present an individual biography of an adult woman from the 3rd millennium BC from the Eastern Baltic. Being a representative of a Corded Ware Culture she is considered one of the first documented cases carrying the early plague bacteria, Yersina pestis. The appearance, life, and death of this individual from Sope, NE Estonia, is provided through an application of a range of osteological and biomolecular analyses. The mortuary practices that accompanied her death are revealed through post-excavation archaeothanatological analysis. The position of bones within the grave indicates that her remains were handled differently from the known contemporary Corded Ware Culture inhumations. The mortuary treatment consisted of at least two phases that resulted in an imitation of a ‘proper’ flexed burial. Probably, the reburial of bones was undertaken during the Corded Ware period.
There have been various explanations in archaeological literature about whether the earliest Bron... more There have been various explanations in archaeological literature about whether the earliest Bronze Age stone-cist graves and the first Pre-Roman Iron Age tarand graves in Estonia were built by locals or non-locals. As to possible immigrations, the stone-cist graves have been often related to Scandinavian populations, whilst early tarand graves allegedly had roots in eastern directions. The oldest known examples of these cemetery types are at Jõelähtme and Muuksi for stone-cist graves, and at Ilmandu and Kunda for early tarand graves, in the coastal zone of northern Estonia. In order to test the migration hypothesis we carried out a bioarchaeological study, measuring and mapping local biologically available Sr and O isotope ratios and analysing stable isotope signals of altogether eight individuals from these early stone-cist and tarand graves. The study material was chosen on the basis of the oldest AMS dates of skeletons available so far, or according to the earliest burial constructions in the cemeteries. Based on the comparison of local biologically available Sr and O isotopic baseline results and the results obtained from the individuals, we can talk about migrants in the case of two persons from Kunda and perhaps one from Muuksi, whilst most of the individuals analysed are of local origin. Thus, the idea of Early Metal Period migrations to Estonia from the surrounding regions is supported to some extent. However, the discussion of these migrations might turn out to be surprisingly different from what is expected on the basis of material culture. We also emphasise the importance of further analysis, especially mapping isotopic baseline data in the eastern Baltics, in order to draw further conclusions about the directions and extent of prehistoric migration in this region.
Graphical Abstract Highlights d Yersinia pestis was common across Eurasia in the Bronze Age d The... more Graphical Abstract Highlights d Yersinia pestis was common across Eurasia in the Bronze Age d The most recent common ancestor of all Y. pestis was 5,783 years ago
The bacteria Yersinia pestis is the etiological agent of plague and has caused human pandemics wi... more The bacteria Yersinia pestis is the etiological agent of plague and has caused human pandemics with millions of deaths in historic times. How and when it originated remains contentious. Here, we report the oldest direct evidence of Yersinia pestis identified by ancient DNA in human teeth from Asia and Europe dating from 2,800 to 5,000 years ago. By sequencing the genomes, we find that these ancient plague strains are basal to all known Yersinia pestis. We find the origins of the Yersinia pestis lineage to be at least two times older than previous estimates. We also identify a temporal sequence of genetic changes that lead to increased virulence and the emergence of the bubonic plague. Our results show that plague infection was endemic in the human populations of Eurasia at least 3,000 years before any historical recordings of pandemics.
The Bronze Age of Eurasia (c. 3,000-1,000 years BC) was a period of major cultural ... more The Bronze Age of Eurasia (c. 3,000-1,000 years BC) was a period of major cultural changes accompanying the transition from hunting-gathering and farming into early urban civilization. It remains debated how these transitions shaped the distribution of the human populations. To investigate this we used new methodological improvements to sequence low coverage genomes from 101 ancient humans from across Eurasia, covering the entire Bronze Age including the late Neolithic and the Iron Age. We show that around 3,000 BC, Europe and Central Asia receive a major genetic input from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe through people related to the Yamnaya culture, resulting in the formation of the Corded Ware Culture in Europe and the Afanasievo Culture in Central Asia. A thousand years later, migrations from Europe into Central Asia, gives rise to the Sintashta and Andronovo Cultures. During later Bronze Age, the European-derived populations in Asia are gradually replaced by multi-ethnic cultures.
In the 1980s, several Late Bronze Age stone-cist graves were excavated at Jõelähtme in northern E... more In the 1980s, several Late Bronze Age stone-cist graves were excavated at Jõelähtme in northern Estonia. In the current study, we focus on grave No. 19 and reconstruct some of the events that occurred there by comparing the osteological data with grave structures, artefacts and contextual information. The fragmented bone material included three inhumations, of which one was almost articulated, while others were represented by few bones. It appears that after the burial of an adult the majority of its remains were removed – probably when an older male, whose skeleton was almost completely preserved, was interred there. For the few remains of an infant, however, there is no clear hypothesis about the timing of the burial. Additionally, thirteen animal and bird species, scattered around the site, were identified. Whether they are evidence of mortuary practices, traces of human habitation from different periods as indicated by ceramics, or just of natural processes, will be discussed in the paper. Although subsequent study with precise dating would be necessary to clarify the relative chronology and interpretation of the site, it is clear that grave No. 19 is not only a place for the Late Bronze Age burials, but also for significantly later activities.
Several Corded Ware culture (in Eastern Baltic 2800–2000 cal BC) burial sites are known from Esto... more Several Corded Ware culture (in Eastern Baltic 2800–2000 cal BC) burial sites are known from Estonia. As majority of the sites has been destroyed by plowing or construction works, only four of them have been archaeologically excavated. Therefore we solely have scattered pieces of information regarding the burial customs and people of the Corded Ware complexes. The preserved osteological material reveals around ten individuals from both sexes and various age groups. The corpses were buried mainly in crouched positions in pit graves, accompanied by grave goods (e.g. ceramic vessels, items of stone, flint and bone and probably meat). It is also assumed that the dead were treated differently, based on their sex e.g. variations in the placement of the body or the type of grave goods interred with the deceased. However, the recent osteological analyses contradict few of the previous notions. For example, a female was buried with a shaft-hole stone axe – an item usually associated with “males”. Additionally there appears to be evidence of either a secondary deposition of the remains or a disturbed grave.
Abstracts. 19th Annual Meeting of the European Association of Archaeologists. 2013 Pilsen - Czech Republic. Pilsen, University of West Bohemia, p. 429.
"The first above-ground grave type that appeared in Estonia is the stone-cist grave (used from La... more "The first above-ground grave type that appeared in Estonia is the stone-cist grave (used from Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Ages). In 1980’s due to rescue excavations in Jõelähtme in Northern Estonia, 36 stone-cist graves were fully excavated. Current case study focuses on the grave no 19. Our aim is to find out to what extent the events regarding this grave can be reconstructed, if we can rely only on inconsistent, yet sufficient documentation and fragmented osteological material.
Based on the material it is possible to determine the number of species and individuals, also age, sex, pathologies and taphonomical features. At least, three individuals were buried in grave No 19 but only one of them had a complete skeleton. Additionally, many animal and bird species were present; bones from three dogs among them. Since the documentation shows mostly general location of the remains, the contexts of single finds cannot be assessed. Still, we provide a discussion on how do the human remains relate to each other, why there are numerous animal and bird species, and, based on 14C datings, how are human and animal bones correlated."
Stone-cist graves are round structures with central cist(s) and one or more exterior circular wal... more Stone-cist graves are round structures with central cist(s) and one or more exterior circular walls. They were used throughout the Late Bronze Age (around 1200–500 BC) in coastal regions of Estonia. Although the graves appear to be meant for a single burial, usually remains of multiple individuals are found within them. In 1980s 36 graves in Jõelähtme in Northern Estonia were fully excavated. We have approached the bone material using osteological and taphonomic methods, together with contextual analysis. The fragmented nature of the bones and problematic documentation has made the study challenging but fruitful. Some examples of the results: minimum number of human individuals in graves varies from zero to six, all age groups are represented; there are several mammal and bird species; none of the human or animal skeletons are complete or articulated, even though bones preserve well in that environment. Our presentation tackles various questions such as why are numerous skeletons represented only by few bone fragments? Why were human remains often commingled with animal bones? How do we explain different taphonomic features e.g. heavy fragmentation and only a few cut-marks? Which animal bones can be associated with the burial customs? Why does the number of individuals per grave vary so extensively?
Stone-cist graves are round structures with central cist(s) and one or more exterior circular wal... more Stone-cist graves are round structures with central cist(s) and one or more exterior circular walls. They have been used throughout Late Bronze Age (around 1200–500 BC) in coastal regions of Estonia. Although the graves appear to be meant for a single burial, usually remains of multiple individuals are found. In 1980’s 36 graves in Jõelähtme in Northern Estonia were fully excavated.
We have approached the bone material using osteological and taphonomic methods together with contextual analysis. Fragmented nature of the bones and problematic documentation has made the study challenging but fruitful. Some examples of the results: minimum number of human individuals in graves varies from zero to six, all age groups are represented; there are several mammal and bird species; none of the human or animal skeletons are complete or articulated, even though bones preserve well in that environment.
Our presentation tackles various questions like why are numerous skeletons represented only by few bone fragments? Why were human remains often commingled with animal bones? How to explain different taphonomic features e.g. heavy fragmentation and only few cut-marks? Which animal bones can be associated with the burial customs? Why does the number of individuals per grave vary so extensively?
"The first above-ground grave type that appeared in Estonia is the stone-cist grave (used from La... more "The first above-ground grave type that appeared in Estonia is the stone-cist grave (used from Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Ages). In 1980’s due to rescue excavations in Jõelähtme in Northern Estonia, 36 stone-cist graves were fully excavated. Current case study focuses on the grave no 19. Our aim is to find out to what extent the events regarding this grave can be reconstructed, if we can rely only on inconsistent, yet sufficient documentation and fragmented osteological material.
Based on the material it is possible to determine the number of species and individuals, also age, sex, pathologies and taphonomical features. At least, three individuals were buried in grave No 19 but only one of them had a complete skeleton. Additionally, many animal and bird species were present; bones from three dogs among them. Since the documentation shows mostly general location of the remains, the contexts of single finds cannot be assessed. Still, we provide a discussion on how do the human remains relate to each other, why there are numerous animal and bird species, and, based on 14C datings, how are human and animal bones correlated."
The Bronze Age of Eurasia (around 3000-1000 BC) was a period of major cultural changes. However, ... more The Bronze Age of Eurasia (around 3000-1000 BC) was a period of major cultural changes. However, there is debate about whether these changes resulted from the circulation of ideas or from human migrations, potentially also facilitating the spread of languages and certain phenotypic traits. We investigated this by using new, improved methods to sequence low-coverage genomes from 101 ancient humans from across Eurasia. We show that the Bronze Age was a highly dynamic period involving large-scale population migrations and replacements, responsible for shaping major parts of present-day demographic structure in both Europe and Asia. Our findings are consistent with the hypothesized spread of Indo-European languages during the Early Bronze Age. We also demonstrate that light skin pigmentation in Europeans was already present at high frequency in the Bronze Age, but not lactose tolerance, indicating a more recent onset of positive selection on lactose tolerance than previously thought.
We present an individual biography of an adult woman from the 3rd millennium BC from the Eastern ... more We present an individual biography of an adult woman from the 3rd millennium BC from the Eastern Baltic. Being a representative of a Corded Ware Culture she is considered one of the first documented cases carrying the early plague bacteria, Yersina pestis. The appearance, life, and death of this individual from Sope, NE Estonia, is provided through an application of a range of osteological and biomolecular analyses. The mortuary practices that accompanied her death are revealed through post-excavation archaeothanatological analysis. The position of bones within the grave indicates that her remains were handled differently from the known contemporary Corded Ware Culture inhumations. The mortuary treatment consisted of at least two phases that resulted in an imitation of a ‘proper’ flexed burial. Probably, the reburial of bones was undertaken during the Corded Ware period.
There have been various explanations in archaeological literature about whether the earliest Bron... more There have been various explanations in archaeological literature about whether the earliest Bronze Age stone-cist graves and the first Pre-Roman Iron Age tarand graves in Estonia were built by locals or non-locals. As to possible immigrations, the stone-cist graves have been often related to Scandinavian populations, whilst early tarand graves allegedly had roots in eastern directions. The oldest known examples of these cemetery types are at Jõelähtme and Muuksi for stone-cist graves, and at Ilmandu and Kunda for early tarand graves, in the coastal zone of northern Estonia. In order to test the migration hypothesis we carried out a bioarchaeological study, measuring and mapping local biologically available Sr and O isotope ratios and analysing stable isotope signals of altogether eight individuals from these early stone-cist and tarand graves. The study material was chosen on the basis of the oldest AMS dates of skeletons available so far, or according to the earliest burial constructions in the cemeteries. Based on the comparison of local biologically available Sr and O isotopic baseline results and the results obtained from the individuals, we can talk about migrants in the case of two persons from Kunda and perhaps one from Muuksi, whilst most of the individuals analysed are of local origin. Thus, the idea of Early Metal Period migrations to Estonia from the surrounding regions is supported to some extent. However, the discussion of these migrations might turn out to be surprisingly different from what is expected on the basis of material culture. We also emphasise the importance of further analysis, especially mapping isotopic baseline data in the eastern Baltics, in order to draw further conclusions about the directions and extent of prehistoric migration in this region.
Graphical Abstract Highlights d Yersinia pestis was common across Eurasia in the Bronze Age d The... more Graphical Abstract Highlights d Yersinia pestis was common across Eurasia in the Bronze Age d The most recent common ancestor of all Y. pestis was 5,783 years ago
The bacteria Yersinia pestis is the etiological agent of plague and has caused human pandemics wi... more The bacteria Yersinia pestis is the etiological agent of plague and has caused human pandemics with millions of deaths in historic times. How and when it originated remains contentious. Here, we report the oldest direct evidence of Yersinia pestis identified by ancient DNA in human teeth from Asia and Europe dating from 2,800 to 5,000 years ago. By sequencing the genomes, we find that these ancient plague strains are basal to all known Yersinia pestis. We find the origins of the Yersinia pestis lineage to be at least two times older than previous estimates. We also identify a temporal sequence of genetic changes that lead to increased virulence and the emergence of the bubonic plague. Our results show that plague infection was endemic in the human populations of Eurasia at least 3,000 years before any historical recordings of pandemics.
The Bronze Age of Eurasia (c. 3,000-1,000 years BC) was a period of major cultural ... more The Bronze Age of Eurasia (c. 3,000-1,000 years BC) was a period of major cultural changes accompanying the transition from hunting-gathering and farming into early urban civilization. It remains debated how these transitions shaped the distribution of the human populations. To investigate this we used new methodological improvements to sequence low coverage genomes from 101 ancient humans from across Eurasia, covering the entire Bronze Age including the late Neolithic and the Iron Age. We show that around 3,000 BC, Europe and Central Asia receive a major genetic input from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe through people related to the Yamnaya culture, resulting in the formation of the Corded Ware Culture in Europe and the Afanasievo Culture in Central Asia. A thousand years later, migrations from Europe into Central Asia, gives rise to the Sintashta and Andronovo Cultures. During later Bronze Age, the European-derived populations in Asia are gradually replaced by multi-ethnic cultures.
In the 1980s, several Late Bronze Age stone-cist graves were excavated at Jõelähtme in northern E... more In the 1980s, several Late Bronze Age stone-cist graves were excavated at Jõelähtme in northern Estonia. In the current study, we focus on grave No. 19 and reconstruct some of the events that occurred there by comparing the osteological data with grave structures, artefacts and contextual information. The fragmented bone material included three inhumations, of which one was almost articulated, while others were represented by few bones. It appears that after the burial of an adult the majority of its remains were removed – probably when an older male, whose skeleton was almost completely preserved, was interred there. For the few remains of an infant, however, there is no clear hypothesis about the timing of the burial. Additionally, thirteen animal and bird species, scattered around the site, were identified. Whether they are evidence of mortuary practices, traces of human habitation from different periods as indicated by ceramics, or just of natural processes, will be discussed in the paper. Although subsequent study with precise dating would be necessary to clarify the relative chronology and interpretation of the site, it is clear that grave No. 19 is not only a place for the Late Bronze Age burials, but also for significantly later activities.
Several Corded Ware culture (in Eastern Baltic 2800–2000 cal BC) burial sites are known from Esto... more Several Corded Ware culture (in Eastern Baltic 2800–2000 cal BC) burial sites are known from Estonia. As majority of the sites has been destroyed by plowing or construction works, only four of them have been archaeologically excavated. Therefore we solely have scattered pieces of information regarding the burial customs and people of the Corded Ware complexes. The preserved osteological material reveals around ten individuals from both sexes and various age groups. The corpses were buried mainly in crouched positions in pit graves, accompanied by grave goods (e.g. ceramic vessels, items of stone, flint and bone and probably meat). It is also assumed that the dead were treated differently, based on their sex e.g. variations in the placement of the body or the type of grave goods interred with the deceased. However, the recent osteological analyses contradict few of the previous notions. For example, a female was buried with a shaft-hole stone axe – an item usually associated with “males”. Additionally there appears to be evidence of either a secondary deposition of the remains or a disturbed grave.
Abstracts. 19th Annual Meeting of the European Association of Archaeologists. 2013 Pilsen - Czech Republic. Pilsen, University of West Bohemia, p. 429.
"The first above-ground grave type that appeared in Estonia is the stone-cist grave (used from La... more "The first above-ground grave type that appeared in Estonia is the stone-cist grave (used from Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Ages). In 1980’s due to rescue excavations in Jõelähtme in Northern Estonia, 36 stone-cist graves were fully excavated. Current case study focuses on the grave no 19. Our aim is to find out to what extent the events regarding this grave can be reconstructed, if we can rely only on inconsistent, yet sufficient documentation and fragmented osteological material.
Based on the material it is possible to determine the number of species and individuals, also age, sex, pathologies and taphonomical features. At least, three individuals were buried in grave No 19 but only one of them had a complete skeleton. Additionally, many animal and bird species were present; bones from three dogs among them. Since the documentation shows mostly general location of the remains, the contexts of single finds cannot be assessed. Still, we provide a discussion on how do the human remains relate to each other, why there are numerous animal and bird species, and, based on 14C datings, how are human and animal bones correlated."
Stone-cist graves are round structures with central cist(s) and one or more exterior circular wal... more Stone-cist graves are round structures with central cist(s) and one or more exterior circular walls. They were used throughout the Late Bronze Age (around 1200–500 BC) in coastal regions of Estonia. Although the graves appear to be meant for a single burial, usually remains of multiple individuals are found within them. In 1980s 36 graves in Jõelähtme in Northern Estonia were fully excavated. We have approached the bone material using osteological and taphonomic methods, together with contextual analysis. The fragmented nature of the bones and problematic documentation has made the study challenging but fruitful. Some examples of the results: minimum number of human individuals in graves varies from zero to six, all age groups are represented; there are several mammal and bird species; none of the human or animal skeletons are complete or articulated, even though bones preserve well in that environment. Our presentation tackles various questions such as why are numerous skeletons represented only by few bone fragments? Why were human remains often commingled with animal bones? How do we explain different taphonomic features e.g. heavy fragmentation and only a few cut-marks? Which animal bones can be associated with the burial customs? Why does the number of individuals per grave vary so extensively?
Stone-cist graves are round structures with central cist(s) and one or more exterior circular wal... more Stone-cist graves are round structures with central cist(s) and one or more exterior circular walls. They have been used throughout Late Bronze Age (around 1200–500 BC) in coastal regions of Estonia. Although the graves appear to be meant for a single burial, usually remains of multiple individuals are found. In 1980’s 36 graves in Jõelähtme in Northern Estonia were fully excavated.
We have approached the bone material using osteological and taphonomic methods together with contextual analysis. Fragmented nature of the bones and problematic documentation has made the study challenging but fruitful. Some examples of the results: minimum number of human individuals in graves varies from zero to six, all age groups are represented; there are several mammal and bird species; none of the human or animal skeletons are complete or articulated, even though bones preserve well in that environment.
Our presentation tackles various questions like why are numerous skeletons represented only by few bone fragments? Why were human remains often commingled with animal bones? How to explain different taphonomic features e.g. heavy fragmentation and only few cut-marks? Which animal bones can be associated with the burial customs? Why does the number of individuals per grave vary so extensively?
"The first above-ground grave type that appeared in Estonia is the stone-cist grave (used from La... more "The first above-ground grave type that appeared in Estonia is the stone-cist grave (used from Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Ages). In 1980’s due to rescue excavations in Jõelähtme in Northern Estonia, 36 stone-cist graves were fully excavated. Current case study focuses on the grave no 19. Our aim is to find out to what extent the events regarding this grave can be reconstructed, if we can rely only on inconsistent, yet sufficient documentation and fragmented osteological material.
Based on the material it is possible to determine the number of species and individuals, also age, sex, pathologies and taphonomical features. At least, three individuals were buried in grave No 19 but only one of them had a complete skeleton. Additionally, many animal and bird species were present; bones from three dogs among them. Since the documentation shows mostly general location of the remains, the contexts of single finds cannot be assessed. Still, we provide a discussion on how do the human remains relate to each other, why there are numerous animal and bird species, and, based on 14C datings, how are human and animal bones correlated."
Uploads
Papers
Being a representative of a Corded Ware Culture she is considered one of the first documented cases carrying the
early plague bacteria, Yersina pestis. The appearance, life, and death of this individual from Sope, NE Estonia, is
provided through an application of a range of osteological and biomolecular analyses. The mortuary practices
that accompanied her death are revealed through post-excavation archaeothanatological analysis. The position
of bones within the grave indicates that her remains were handled differently from the known contemporary
Corded Ware Culture inhumations. The mortuary treatment consisted of at least two phases that resulted in an
imitation of a ‘proper’ flexed burial. Probably, the reburial of bones was undertaken during the Corded Ware
period.
burial. Additionally, thirteen animal and bird species, scattered around the site,
were identified. Whether they are evidence of mortuary practices, traces of human habitation from different periods as indicated by ceramics, or just of natural processes, will be discussed in the paper. Although subsequent study with precise
dating would be necessary to clarify the relative chronology and interpretation of the site, it is clear that grave No. 19 is not only a place for the Late Bronze Age burials, but also for significantly later activities.
Conference Presentations
The preserved osteological material reveals around ten individuals from both sexes and various age groups. The corpses were buried mainly in crouched positions in pit graves, accompanied by grave goods (e.g. ceramic vessels, items of stone, flint and bone and probably meat). It is also assumed that the dead were treated differently, based on their sex e.g. variations in the placement of the body or the type of grave goods interred with the deceased. However, the recent osteological analyses contradict few of the previous notions. For example, a female was buried with a shaft-hole stone axe – an item usually associated with “males”. Additionally there appears to be evidence of either a secondary deposition of the remains or a disturbed grave.
Based on the material it is possible to determine the number of species and individuals, also age, sex, pathologies and taphonomical features. At least, three individuals were buried in grave No 19 but only one of them had a complete skeleton. Additionally, many animal and bird species were present; bones from three dogs among them. Since the documentation shows mostly general location of the remains, the contexts of single finds cannot be assessed. Still, we provide a discussion on how do the human remains relate to each other, why there are numerous animal and bird species, and, based on 14C datings, how are human and animal bones correlated."
We have approached the bone material using osteological and taphonomic methods together with contextual analysis. Fragmented nature of the bones and problematic documentation has made the study challenging but fruitful. Some examples of the results: minimum number of human individuals in graves varies from zero to six, all age groups are represented; there are several mammal and bird species; none of the human or animal skeletons are complete or articulated, even though bones preserve well in that environment.
Our presentation tackles various questions like why are numerous skeletons represented only by few bone fragments? Why were human remains often commingled with animal bones? How to explain different taphonomic features e.g. heavy fragmentation and only few cut-marks? Which animal bones can be associated with the burial customs? Why does the number of individuals per grave vary so extensively?
Based on the material it is possible to determine the number of species and individuals, also age, sex, pathologies and taphonomical features. At least, three individuals were buried in grave No 19 but only one of them had a complete skeleton. Additionally, many animal and bird species were present; bones from three dogs among them. Since the documentation shows mostly general location of the remains, the contexts of single finds cannot be assessed. Still, we provide a discussion on how do the human remains relate to each other, why there are numerous animal and bird species, and, based on 14C datings, how are human and animal bones correlated."
Being a representative of a Corded Ware Culture she is considered one of the first documented cases carrying the
early plague bacteria, Yersina pestis. The appearance, life, and death of this individual from Sope, NE Estonia, is
provided through an application of a range of osteological and biomolecular analyses. The mortuary practices
that accompanied her death are revealed through post-excavation archaeothanatological analysis. The position
of bones within the grave indicates that her remains were handled differently from the known contemporary
Corded Ware Culture inhumations. The mortuary treatment consisted of at least two phases that resulted in an
imitation of a ‘proper’ flexed burial. Probably, the reburial of bones was undertaken during the Corded Ware
period.
burial. Additionally, thirteen animal and bird species, scattered around the site,
were identified. Whether they are evidence of mortuary practices, traces of human habitation from different periods as indicated by ceramics, or just of natural processes, will be discussed in the paper. Although subsequent study with precise
dating would be necessary to clarify the relative chronology and interpretation of the site, it is clear that grave No. 19 is not only a place for the Late Bronze Age burials, but also for significantly later activities.
The preserved osteological material reveals around ten individuals from both sexes and various age groups. The corpses were buried mainly in crouched positions in pit graves, accompanied by grave goods (e.g. ceramic vessels, items of stone, flint and bone and probably meat). It is also assumed that the dead were treated differently, based on their sex e.g. variations in the placement of the body or the type of grave goods interred with the deceased. However, the recent osteological analyses contradict few of the previous notions. For example, a female was buried with a shaft-hole stone axe – an item usually associated with “males”. Additionally there appears to be evidence of either a secondary deposition of the remains or a disturbed grave.
Based on the material it is possible to determine the number of species and individuals, also age, sex, pathologies and taphonomical features. At least, three individuals were buried in grave No 19 but only one of them had a complete skeleton. Additionally, many animal and bird species were present; bones from three dogs among them. Since the documentation shows mostly general location of the remains, the contexts of single finds cannot be assessed. Still, we provide a discussion on how do the human remains relate to each other, why there are numerous animal and bird species, and, based on 14C datings, how are human and animal bones correlated."
We have approached the bone material using osteological and taphonomic methods together with contextual analysis. Fragmented nature of the bones and problematic documentation has made the study challenging but fruitful. Some examples of the results: minimum number of human individuals in graves varies from zero to six, all age groups are represented; there are several mammal and bird species; none of the human or animal skeletons are complete or articulated, even though bones preserve well in that environment.
Our presentation tackles various questions like why are numerous skeletons represented only by few bone fragments? Why were human remains often commingled with animal bones? How to explain different taphonomic features e.g. heavy fragmentation and only few cut-marks? Which animal bones can be associated with the burial customs? Why does the number of individuals per grave vary so extensively?
Based on the material it is possible to determine the number of species and individuals, also age, sex, pathologies and taphonomical features. At least, three individuals were buried in grave No 19 but only one of them had a complete skeleton. Additionally, many animal and bird species were present; bones from three dogs among them. Since the documentation shows mostly general location of the remains, the contexts of single finds cannot be assessed. Still, we provide a discussion on how do the human remains relate to each other, why there are numerous animal and bird species, and, based on 14C datings, how are human and animal bones correlated."