Monographs by Ian Caldwell
Bulbeck, D. and I. Caldwell. 2000. Land of iron: The historical archaeology of Luwu and the Cenra... more Bulbeck, D. and I. Caldwell. 2000. Land of iron: The historical archaeology of Luwu and the Cenrana valley. Results of the Origin of Complex Society in South Sulawesi Project (OXIS). [Hull], Centre for South-East Asian Studies, University of Hull. Bab Tiga. Terjemahan oleh Nurhady Sirimorok.
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Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, The University of Hull, 2000
The Origin of Complex Society in South Sulawesi (OXIS) Project was an international multi-discipl... more The Origin of Complex Society in South Sulawesi (OXIS) Project was an international multi-disciplinary project set up in 1996 to study the social, economic and ecological origins of kingdoms (or complex chiefdoms) in the Bugis-speaking areas of South Sulawesi between c. 1200 and 1600 CE. Previous textual and archaeological research had pointed to wet-rice agriculture, iron metallurgy, and organised trade as the major economic factors underpinning the establishment of complex polities in South Sulawesi. OXIS was designed to assess the relative importance of these factors, and also to seek evidence of a hypothesized age of trade-based kingdoms representing a substantially earlier foundation of chiefly authority and succession known as the Age of Galigo, after the name of an epic Bugis poem.The initial analysis of the data from Luwu and the Cenrana Valley was published as Bulbeck and Caldwell, 2000, Land of Iron: The archaeology of Luwu and the Cenrana valley. Hull: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies Occasional Monograph Series, University of Hull.
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Papers by Ian Caldwell
Terra Australis, 2020
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Citizenship Studies, 2019
Kewarganegaraan (citizenship) adalah konsep yang sulit diterapkan kepada masyarakat-masyarakat no... more Kewarganegaraan (citizenship) adalah konsep yang sulit diterapkan kepada masyarakat-masyarakat non-Barat. Gagasan kewarganegaraan berasal dari masa Yunani Kuna dan Republik Roma, bentuk moderennya ditempa oleh Revolusi Perancis dan nasionalisme Eropa abad 19 dan 20. Namun gagasan tentang kontrak sosial antara anggota sebuah masyarakat dengan para pemimpin mereka juga ditemukan di masyarakat-masyarakat non-Barat. Pemahaman tentang hak dan kewajiban yang terintegrasi bagi orang merdeka (bukan budak) sudah hadir selama berabad-abad di kalangan orang Bugis dan Makassar, Sulawesi Selatan, Indonesia. Dalam tulisan ini, sejumlah konsep dan praktik yang dikembangkan oleh orang Bugis dan Makassar diperbandingkan dengan kewarganegaraan masa Yunani dan Romawi kuna, dan status perempuan Bugis juga ditelaah secara ringkas. Kesimpulannya, menurut kami prinsip kontraktual yang berasal dari hubungan patron-klien sangat mendasar bagi pembentukan negara-negara Sulawesi Selatan dan bagi kesejahteraan ekonomi dan sosial mereka.
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Citizenship Studies, 2019
Citizenship is a difficult concept to apply to non-Western societies. The idea of citizenship has... more Citizenship is a difficult concept to apply to non-Western societies. The idea of citizenship has its origins in Ancient Athens and Republican Rome, its modern form having been shaped by the French Revolution and the nationalisms of nineteenth- and twenti- eth-century Europe. Yet the idea of a social contract between mem- bers of a society and their leaders is also found in non-Western societies. The notion of integrated rights and duties of free indivi- duals has existed for centuries among the Bugis and Makasar peoples of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. In this paper, concepts and practices developed by the Bugis and Makasar are compared against Classical Greek and Roman citizenship, and the status of Bugis women is briefly examined. In conclusion, it is argued that an important con- tractual principle that has its origins in patron-client relations was fundamental to the foundation of the South Sulawesi states and to their economic and social well-being.
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Archipel 61:139-154, 2001
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Archipel 61:139-154, 2001
The manuscript tradition in South Sulawesi putatively dates back to the fourteenth century, rough... more The manuscript tradition in South Sulawesi putatively dates back to the fourteenth century, roughly beginning about AD 1300 with the recording of genealogies. By far the bulk of manuscripts from the area are written either in Makasar or Bugis and the authors of this article argue that such manuscripts present more philological problems than do their counterparts from Western Indonesia. They begin their discussion with a plea for a very clear definition of terms, so that various concepts are not mixed up with each other. Then they proceed to talk about the sorts of variations which can occur in such manuscripts. They reduce these to five categories: script alternatives; scribal errors; alternative wording; changes in content; and changes in structural content. Of these, the last two are the most important. The people of South Sulawesi themselves make a distinction between two sorts of manuscripts: sureq and lontaraq, the former being considered more sacred and used to record such culturally significant texts as the La Galigo. The authors feel that the question of philology in South Sulawesi is complicated by the multiple variations of the manuscripts which may well arise from the fact that many of them represent attempts to write down oral versions.
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Terra Australis, 2018
Imported high-fired ceramics (tradewares) are critical for dating early South Sulawesi historical... more Imported high-fired ceramics (tradewares) are critical for dating early South Sulawesi historical sites between the 13th/14th and 16th/17th centuries AD. The Allangkanangnge ri Latanete site is of great importance in the South Sulawesi context because of its large tradeware assemblage of more than 2000 sherds and its radiometric chronology that confirms the 13th/14th–16th/17th-century dating assigned by ceramic specialists to the tradeware classes. The site is also of major importance in its local identification with the palace centre of Cina, an early Bugis kingdom. The combined chronological evidence from tradewares and chronometric determinations demonstrates a 14th-century antiquity for the deepest examples of the abundant rice phytoliths recovered from the site. Allangkanangnge ri Latanete exemplifies the major role of rice in the economy of the early Bugis agrarian kingdoms as their subsistence basis and as a source of surplus produce to trade for ceramics and other exotic imports.
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Terra Australis, 2018
The early historical South Sulawesi site Allangkanangnge ri Latanete is reputed to be the locatio... more The early historical South Sulawesi site Allangkanangnge ri Latanete is reputed to be the location of the palace of the legendary Bugis kingdom of Cina. This vanished kingdom arose in the 13th century AD and disappeared in the 16th century. The Allangkanangnge ri Latanete site is dated to between the 13th and 17th centuries based on Carbon-14 determinations and imported stoneware and porcelain sherds recovered through survey and excavation. The material cultural remains excavated at the site are dominated by earthenware sherds: their frequencies indicate light occupation during the 13th century, a main period of habitation between the 14th and 16th centuries, and a decline during the 17th century. Excavated earthenware vessel forms reflect a range of functions including food preparation and storage. There is evidence of ironworking from iron slag debris, earthenware sherds identified as crucibles rims and local oral history. The excavated area near the summit of the hill is characterised by old Islamic graves, said to be those of the rulers of Cina. However, there is no evidence here for burials older than the 16th century; in earlier centuries, the area on the summit, which is protected by a low stone wall, may have been the location of a wooden palace. Some dozens of stone arrangements scattered over the eastern slope may possibly be associated with marking the burials of cremated remains in jars. The site displays a partially coastal orientation, both in terms of physical proximity and subsistence debris during the 13th and 14th centuries followed by a greater focus on wet-rice production during the 14th to 17th centuries.
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Salah satu soal utama dalam histroriografi awal Sulawesi Selatan ialah perbedaan penggambaran Ker... more Salah satu soal utama dalam histroriografi awal Sulawesi Selatan ialah perbedaan penggambaran Kerajaan Cina, sebuah kerajaan Bugis kuna, dalam sumber sejarah dan sastra. Dalam sumber sejarah, Cina nyaris tak tampak; dalam sumber sastra kerajaan ini ternyata besar. Artikel ini memanfaatkan silsilah-silsilah dan geografi wilayah Bugis untuk merekonstruksi luas bentangan Cina dan tetangganya di utara, Luwu, sebagai dua bagian yang saling melengkapi dalam sebuah kerajaan yang diperintah oleh satu kelompok kekerabatan dari leluhur yang sama. Pemahaman baru ini membutuhkan kami menimbang ulang asal mula kerajaan-kerajaan Bugis yang muncul lebih belakangan seperti Bone, Soppeng, dan Wajo. Hal ini menantang kami untuk melihat Luwu bukan sebagai tanah asal peradaban Bugis, tetapi sebagai bagian dari satu kompleks ekonomi dan politik yang berfokus di kawasan persawahan subur di selatan Danau Tempe.
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Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 2017
A central problem of early South Sulawesi historiography is the discrepancy between the portrayal... more A central problem of early South Sulawesi historiography is the discrepancy between the portrayal of the ancient Bugis kingdom of Cina in historical and in literary sources. In the first, Cina is invisible; in the second, it looms large. This article uses Bugis genealogies and physical geography to reconstruct the extent of Cina and the location of its palace sites. In so doing it offers a new understanding of Cina and its northern neighbour Luwuq as complementary parts of a realm controlled by a single corporate cognatic descent group. This new understanding requires us to reconsider the origins of later Bugis kingdoms such as Bone, Soppeng, and Wajoq. It challenges us to consider Luwuq not as the cradle of Bugis civilization, but as part of a single economic and political complex focused on the fertile rice growing lands south of Lake Tempe.
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Sumber-sumber tertulis awal Bugis sebagian besar berupa silsilah. Dengan mengasumsikan tidak terj... more Sumber-sumber tertulis awal Bugis sebagian besar berupa silsilah. Dengan mengasumsikan tidak terjadinya kehilangan besar genre tulisan lain, tampak jelas bahwa silsilah menempati posisi pusat dalam pencatatan sejarah Orang Bugis. Kajian ini menjelaskan mengapa silsilah merupakan naskah yang pertama kali ditulis, apa tujuan penulisannya, dan mengapa silsilah berulang-ulang diberi tambahan dan disalin. Tulisan ini mengajukan argumen bahwa fungsi silsilah tertulis berbeda dokumen-dokumen praktis. Silsilah muncul nyaris bersamaan dengan perkembangan tradisi tulis pada sekitar 1400, dan ditulis karena status yang dapat diraih oleh para pemiliknya. Artikel ini menyingkap apa saja yang dapat dipelajari para sejarawan dari silsilah-silsilah di Sulawesi Selatan sebelum datangnya pengunjung Barat pertama. Tulisan ini mengarahkan perhatian kepada mitos tiga generasi pemula, serupa dengan Hikayat Banjar Malayu, dan menyarankan bahwa mitos ini sangat penting bagi keberhasilan pertanian, dan hak untuk berkuasa.
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Early Bugis written sources consist largely of genealogies. Assuming no significant loss of other... more Early Bugis written sources consist largely of genealogies. Assuming no significant loss of other genres, it is clear that genealogies were central to Bugis historical record keeping. The paper sets out to explain why genealogies were first written down, what purpose they served, and why they were repeatedly added to and copied. It argues that written genealogies had no function as practical documents. Instead, they owed their existence directly to the development of writing around 1400 CE, and to the status that their possession conferred on their owners. The article sets out what historians can learn from genealogies of South Sulawesi prior to the arrival of the first Western visitors. It draws attention to a three-generation myth of origin similar to that found in the Malay Hikayat Banjar, and argues that this myth was central to agricultural fertility, and the right to rule.
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A journey through the central highlands of South Sulawesi. (2014) Review of Malaysian and Indones... more A journey through the central highlands of South Sulawesi. (2014) Review of Malaysian and Indonesian Affairs 48(2):55-75. Terjemahan oleh Nurhady Sirimorok.
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An account of a journey made on foot in 1992 from Sabbang to Mamuju across the unmapped highlands... more An account of a journey made on foot in 1992 from Sabbang to Mamuju across the unmapped highlands of South Sulawesi.
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Esai ini menjelajahi hubungan antara raja orang asing dan otoritas kontraktual dalam sejarah Sula... more Esai ini menjelajahi hubungan antara raja orang asing dan otoritas kontraktual dalam sejarah Sulawesi. Di sebagaian besar semenanjung di Sulawesi, stratifikasi sosial dan politik tidak selalu mudah dikenali. Secara bersamaan kekuasaan para raja dan pemimpin federasi perkampungan (chiefdom) dibatasi oleh kontrak sosial yang kurang lebih bersifat eksplisit, merinci hak dan kewajiban mereka terhadap masyarakat politik di mana mereka memimpin yang biasanya berupa oligarki beranggotakan bangsawan setempat. Kontrak-kontrak ini, diucapkan selama upacara pelantikan dan ritual lainnya, disokong oleh ancaman kekerasan yang nyata kepada penguasa, berikut sanksi-sanksi supra-natural. Di samping watak kontraktualnya, ciri khas lain dari jabatan raja di Sulawesi adalah para penguasa mereka dianggap sebagai orang asing bagi masyarakatnya—biasanya karena mereka adalah pendatang asing dan/atau keturunan dewa, atau kadang karena menderita penyakit atau kecacatan fisik. Raja orang asing memperkuat efektifitas kontrak sosial dengan membuat rakyat lebih mudah mendisiplinkan atau memecat penguasa bila diperlukan. Mereka juga lebih mudah untuk tidak dicemburui atau dibenci rakyat, serta lebih obyektif dan tak memihak ketika berurusan dengan perosalan rakyat. Argumen-argumen ini dijabarkan dengan menggunakan data-data sejarah dan antropologi dari berbagai belahan Sulawesi, khususnya kerajaan-kerajaan Bugis di semenanjung barat daya, Kesultanan Buton dan Banggai di lepas pantai timur, serta federasi perkampungan Gorontalo dan Buol di utara Sulawesi.
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Indonesia and the Malay World 37(105):269-91, 2008
This paper explores the relationship between stranger-kingship and contractual authority in the h... more This paper explores the relationship between stranger-kingship and contractual authority in the history of the island of Sulawesi (Indonesia). In most parts of Sulawesi, social and political stratification were always pronounced. At the same time the power of kings and chiefs was restricted by more or less explicit social contracts defining their rights and duties with respect to the political community as a whole, typically consisting of an oligarchy of local nobles. These contracts, spelled out during inauguration ceremonies and on other ritual occasions, were backed up by realistic threats of violence against the ruler, as well as by supernatural sanctions. Besides its contractual character, another characteristic feature of Sulawesi kingship was that rulers were perceived as outsiders to the community – typically by virtue of foreign and/or divine origin, sometimes perhaps also as a result of sickness or physical abnormality. Stranger-kingship enhanced the effectiveness of the social contract by making the ruler easier for his people to dis- cipline or depose if necessary, and harder for them to envy or hate, as well as more objec- tive and impartial in his own dealings with them. These points are illustrated using historical and anthropological data from various parts of Sulawesi, particularly the Bugis kingdoms of the southwest peninsula, the island sultanates of Buton and Banggai off the east coast, and the chiefdoms of Gorontalo and Buol in the north.
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Artikel ini menyajikan bukti nyata pertama bagi peran utama pertanian padi dalam pembentukan dan ... more Artikel ini menyajikan bukti nyata pertama bagi peran utama pertanian padi dalam pembentukan dan perkembangan domain kompleks, atau kerajaan-kerajaan, di Sulawesi Selatan setelah kisaran tahun 1200. Bukti-bukti ini terdiri dari phitolit padi (Oryza) yang ditemukan dari lubang (pit) yang digali di situs istana yang tercatat paling awal di Sulawesi Selatan. Sebuah konteks kronologis disajikan oleh serpihan keramik yang ditemukan pada lubang gali dan dari sebuah survai permukaan parsial di atas bukit tempat situs itu berada. Gabungan bukti ini mendukung pendapat kami bahwa kerajaan-kerajaan agraris pertama kali muncul pada akhir abad ke 13 sebagai tanggapan masyarakat setempat terhadap ketersediaan barang dagangan, utamanya tekstil India dan barang-barang keramik Tiongkok dan Asia Tenggara. Tidak ditemukan pendukung material dan stratigrafis bagi teori lain bahwa kerajaan-kerajaan awal Sulawesi Selatan utamanya bersandar pada perdagangan, dan bahwa perkembangan selanjutnya kerajaan-kerajaan ini terpotong oleh keruntuhan ekonomi dan sosial yang berlangsung beberapa dekade.
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Indonesia and the Malay World 36(104), Mar 2008
This article sets out the first direct evidence for the central role of rice cultivation in the o... more This article sets out the first direct evidence for the central role of rice cultivation in the origin and development of complex chiefdoms, or kingdoms, in South Sulawesi after c. AD 1200. This evidence comprises Oryza phytoliths recovered from a test pit excavated from the earliest recorded palace site in South Sulawesi. A chronological context is provided by ceramic sherdage recovered from the test pit and from a partial surface survey of the hill on which the site is located. The combined evidence supports our contention that agrarian kingdoms first appeared in the late 13th century as an indigenous response to the availability of trade goods, mainly Indian textiles and Chinese and Southeast Asian ceramic wares. No material or stratigraphic support was found for an alternative theory that South Sulawesi’s early kingdoms were primarily trade based, and that their subsequent development was punctuated by an economic and social collapse lasting several decades.
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Kritik Bentuk adalah teknik kajian teks yang kuat, awalnya disusun oleh para peneliti Injil abad ... more Kritik Bentuk adalah teknik kajian teks yang kuat, awalnya disusun oleh para peneliti Injil abad ke 19, tetapi kini diterapkan pada teks-teks naratif dari banyak budaya. Kritik Bentuk dimulai dengan mengidentifikasi genre atau bentuk lazim sebuah teks, lalu menentukan latar sosiologis atau “situasi dalam kehidupan nyata” (Jerman: Sitz im Leben) teks tersebut. Penulis berpendapat bahwa teks-teks historis Bugis, dan sangat mungkin teks naratif historis mana pun dari kepulauan Malayu-Indonesia, tidak dapat dibaca secara naïf, sebab teks tersebut bisa saja memuat beberapa komponen yang sebelumnya berdri sendiri, yang harus dipahami secara terpisah sebelum menimbang penggabungan mereka ke dalam suatu karya. Kritik Bentuk merupakan bagian mendasar dalam menyunting teks semacam itu sebelum dapat digunakan sebagai sumber sejarah.
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Monographs by Ian Caldwell
Papers by Ian Caldwell