The idea of learning rooted in behavioural psychology has become dominant in the field of teachin... more The idea of learning rooted in behavioural psychology has become dominant in the field of teaching and learning for several decades. Even though it has been widely used in formal education it is inadequate for informing lifelong learning policies and plans. In this paper, first I critique the psychological foundation of learning and in the second part, drawing on Habermasian conceptualisation of three structural components of the lifeworld (culture, society, and personality), I conceptualise the three components as the social foundations of learning: learning as cultural reproduction, learning as social integration and learning as socialisation. In the context of the UN's declaration of 'lifelong learning' as one of the Sustainable Development Goals, this paper will be useful for developing policies to address challenges faced by individual countries at cultural, societal and individual levels.
The concepts of adult education, adult literacy, and lifelong learning—about which several books ... more The concepts of adult education, adult literacy, and lifelong learning—about which several books and journal articles are written—have been interpreted in several ways. Educational policy documents produced by supranational organisations such as the European Union and the World Bank use these terms, especially lifelong learning, to suit their own political and economic interests. Those terms are then used in policy documents produced at national levels because nation states are highly interconnected with those organisations. Nepal makes a special case because of its overreliance on external donors such as the World Bank for financing several developmental programmes, including educational ones. This paper explores how the terms adult literacy and lifelong learning are interpreted in Nepalese educational policy documents. By analysing Nepal’s key educational policy documents, the paper examines how the term adult education is narrowly understood as literacy. In the second section, the paper examines how the notion of lifelong learning is vaguely used in Nepalese educational policy documents as an alternative term for adult literacy.
Funding for adult education was a major problem in Education for All decade (2000-2015) hence adu... more Funding for adult education was a major problem in Education for All decade (2000-2015) hence adult education related goal was not achieved. Taking the stock from EFA a new set of goals have been declared for next 15 years (2016-2030). This paper analyses key documents produced towards setting Sustainable Development Goals 2030 and Education 2030 goals with a special focus on financing adult education for Least Developed Countries. The paper focuses on what funding modality is recommended, especially for LDCs, and the potential of this modality to ensure learning opportunities for millions of illiterate adults living in LDCs.
This paper problematizes the terms ‘developing countries’, ‘third world’ and ‘global south’ and a... more This paper problematizes the terms ‘developing countries’, ‘third world’ and ‘global south’ and argues in favour of ‘the Least Developed Countries (LDCs)’ as a category to explore the relevance of lifelong learning for poor nations. It argues that foreign assistance is a hindrance to enable the people of LDC to solve their problems and explores how humanistic approach to lifelong learning – that goes against the idea of knowledge based economy – could direct us towards the development of a pro-poor model of lifelong for solving the problems of those impoverished nations.
This paper critically examines some key documents published
towards formulating a set of post-201... more This paper critically examines some key documents published towards formulating a set of post-2015 development as well as educational goals. The paper argues that even though ‘lifelong learning for all’ has been recommended as an overarching post-2015 educational goal adult education is not considered important. The paper identifies three major factors— overemphasis on measurements and comparisons, overreliance on corporate financing, and transnational governance of education—creating roadblocks for setting more holistic goals of education. The paper concludes that despite the importance of providing equitable educational opportunities especially to the adults of the most impoverished nations of the global South—known as the Least Developed Countries—adult education sector is completely neglected in the documents shaping post-2015 educational agendas.
BOOK REVIEW: Cain, S. (2012). Quiet: The power of introverts
in a world that can't stop talking. ... more BOOK REVIEW: Cain, S. (2012). Quiet: The power of introverts in a world that can't stop talking. New York, NY: Crown Publishers. 333 pages. ISBN: 9780307352149.
Karlan and Appel present a number of case studies carried out in economically poor countries such... more Karlan and Appel present a number of case studies carried out in economically poor countries such as Ghana, India, Kenya, and Bangladesh to examine the effectiveness of developmental projects launched to reduce poverty. This book is also about how individual philanthropists of the developed world can help people of low-income countries improve their socioeconomic conditions. The authors use the Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT) as a method for assessing problems connected to poverty. They examine change in the lives of individuals with access to development programs such as microcredit, which involves " provision of small loans to the poor " (p. 9). Karlan and Appel go on to compare these peoples' lives with those who did not have access to microcredit. In all of the case studies, the authors show how small details could be a tool for assessing the effectiveness of development projects. " Getting poor people to borrow money has become one of the best hopes for alleviating poverty " (p. 57), but the problem with this is that poor people in the developing world hesitate to take loans. In their case studies, Karlan and Appel explain why poor people are reluctant to take loans. Firstly, many poor people do not perceive the provision of loans as a miracle cure for their problems; rather, they perceive it as a debt with a great challenge to repay. Secondly, many poor people are excluded from obtaining loans because of lenders' " restrictions on the use of borrowed money " (p. 74). For example, in the case of Sri Lanka, Karlan and Appel find that borrowers were allowed to take loans only for financing business activities. But the reality was that everybody was not willing to and capable of conducting business. The book has 308 pages and 12 chapters with short and simple headings such as To Buy, To Borrow, and To Save. The first half of the book takes a close look at microcredit, whereas in the second half, the authors try to convince donors to examine individual projects in terms of their potential impact on reducing poverty before making donations. Full of illustrations and metaphorical expressions, this is an easily readable book that could be persuasive to donors who would like to donate to projects focused on the reduction of poverty. The authors are successful in persuading potential donors that " good intentions " (p. 3) expressed in the provision of loans to the poor are not enough to solve the problem of poverty. Karlan and Appel claim that small development actions such as the provision of microcredit should be scaled up so as to bring larger spillover effects in the endeavour to reduce poverty on a
The modern history of Nepal started after the Kingdom of Nepal was formed during the 1760s throug... more The modern history of Nepal started after the Kingdom of Nepal was formed during the 1760s through a series of military battles, which is now known as a national unification campaign, led by Prithvi Narayan Shah. The history of mass education, however, started during the 1950s when a political uprising overthrew autocratic Rana regime that had ruled the country for more than a century. This paper aims to explore Nepal's educational history by analysing key educational policy documents produced by the Government of Nepal as well as its major donor the World Bank from 1950 to 2020. The paper uses international political economy as a theoretical framework and critical policy sociology as a methodological approach. The key argument of the paper is that, since some of the problematic assumptions of modernism, nationalism, and globalism have guided Nepal's policy agendas, its education system has not addressed multifarious challenges faced by its citizens. The theoretical and methodological approaches taken for exploring the interconnections between education, economy, and politics will be helpful for future researchers to understand the significance of education not only for economic development but also for the institutionalization of democracy in both developed and developing countries.
Méthod(e)s: African Review of Social Sciences Methodology, 2017
Critical discourse analysis (CDA) stresses that language use, discourse, and communication should... more Critical discourse analysis (CDA) stresses that language use, discourse, and communication should be studied in their social, cultural and political contexts. A considerable amount of literature has been produced and the use of CDA as a research methodology has been so wide across various disciplines of social sciences. The current body of literature in the field reflects two major aspects of CDA: Linguistic aspect and critical aspect. However, the philosophical aspect of CDA, especially its ontological and epistemological underpinnings, which in a sense guides other two aspects, is not fully elaborated. This paper summarizes linguistic and critical aspects of CDA and explores major philosophical underpinnings of CDA with the help of four aporias of research methodology introduced by Patti Lather.
Several theories of development—such as modernisation, dependency, world system, and postcolonial... more Several theories of development—such as modernisation, dependency, world system, and postcolonial—are found in current body of literature, however, similarities and differences of these theories are not clearly articulated. This paper reviewed key scholarly literature of this field and found that major theories of development stem from three foundational models: modernist model, dependency model, and postdevelopment model. The modernist model assumes that development is a form of positive change in human societies, occurs in stages, and has a fixed route applicable to all societies. The dependency model, on the other hand, challenges the assumptions of modernist model and argues that socioeconomic prosperity of developing countries is not possible without dismantling global capitalistic system. Finally, the postdevelopment model questions the very idea of developmentalism advocated by modernist and dependency models; rather it argues that development is an ideological discourse constructed by the West hence there is an urgency of not only alternative of development theories but an alternative to the idea of development itself.
International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 2019
In recent decades, educational policy researchers have considered critical policy sociology, most... more In recent decades, educational policy researchers have considered critical policy sociology, mostly known as ?policy sociology?, as a useful research methodology for analysing educational policies. However, despite its increasing popularity, policy sociology has been a confusing concept hence it is often used interchangeably with other terms such as policy analysis. In the main, there is a dearth of literature outlining its key underlying assumptions and how this methodology helps policy researchers to analyse social, political and economic issues related to educational policy. By reviewing current body of literature in the field, this paper identifies policy sociology as one of the four major traditions in the policy analysis field. The paper presents six key underlying assumptions of policy sociology: value based study, political study, historical study, multidisciplinary study, assemblage study, and discourse study and discusses how researchers have used policy sociology as a research methodology for analysing educational policies.
Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 2021
In the context of educational globalisation, the role of supranational organisations in shaping t... more In the context of educational globalisation, the role of supranational organisations in shaping the educational policy decisions, especially of aid-dependent countries, has increased. Using global governance as a theoretical framework and Critical Policy Sociology (CPS) as a methodological framework, this paper analysed key educational policy documents produced by the World Bank (WB) and the Government of Nepal (GON), as well as interviews conducted with 13 key educational planners in Nepal. The analysis found that the nature and scope of educational management has changed because of the shift from traditional government to a new governance mechanism. In this new mechanism, educational governance is shared among international donors, the private sector and the GON. As Nepal’s educational policy decisions are increasingly shaped by international donors, educational strategies recommended by them have shaped Nepal’s educational policy and planning decisions.
In the context of educational globalization and increasing dominance of supranational organizatio... more In the context of educational globalization and increasing dominance of supranational organizations in educational governance, least developed countries (LDCs) have faced a new level of tension about whether their educational policies should follow the global educational models or seek solutions of their multifarious problems by promoting local indigenous literacy practices. This article critically analyzed key educational policy documents produced by major supranational organizations and selected LDCs and argues that the deficit perspective in education started in the colonial period and institutionalized during the structural adjustment period has shaped literacy policies and practices even after the 1990s. The article concludes with an appeal for developing contextually relevant literacy policies and programs through an asset perspective; and provides directions for further research for exploring LDCs? literacy policies.
Though government funding has shrunk, Nepal’s higher education (HE) sector has expanded in the la... more Though government funding has shrunk, Nepal’s higher education (HE) sector has expanded in the last three decades in terms of the establishment of new institutions and the implementation of a series of projects funded by the World Bank. Using neoliberal instrumentalism as a theoretical framework and critical policy sociology as a methodological tool, this paper analysed key policy documents produced by the World Bank and the Government of Nepal for implementing three most recent HE projects in Nepal. The paper argues that a new version of human capital theory, which stems from neoliberal instrumentalism in education, has guided HE policies and practices of Nepal. Though a number of reform strategies are implemented with the aim of increasing performance and competition, the HE sector has become increasingly unresponsive to the needs of Nepali communities and societies.
Lifelong learning has become a catchword in almost all countries because of its growing influence... more Lifelong learning has become a catchword in almost all countries because of its growing influence on education policies in the globalised world. In the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU), the promotion of lifelong learning has been a strategy to speed up economic growth and become competitive. For UNESCO and the World Bank, lifelong learning has been a novel education model to improve educational policies and programmes in developing countries. In the existing body of literature on the topic, various models of lifelong learning are discussed. After reviewing a number of relevant seminal texts by proponents of a variety of schools, this paper argues that the vast number of approaches are actually built on two foundational models, which the author calls the “human capital model” and the “humanistic model”. The former aims to increase productive capacity by encouraging competition, privatisation and human capital formation so as to enhance economic growth. The latter aims to strengthen democracy and social welfare by fostering citizenship education, building social capital and expanding capability.
Amidst growing criticisms of global financial institutions, primarily the World Bank, this articl... more Amidst growing criticisms of global financial institutions, primarily the World Bank, this article explores their influence on educational programme planning in some of the impoverished nations known as the Least Developed Countries (LDCs). The domination of these institutions originates not only from their monetary power but also from the hegemonic ideas they spread: the theory of human capital and the technical-rational model have long guided educational programme planning. In the context of increasing control of educational governance by supranational organizations, this article explores how these ideologies are constraining the capacities of poor nations to make sovereign decisions and set their own educational goals and priorities. Nepal provides a special case. In recent decades it has faced policy changes because of two sets of conditions: those imposed by the World Bank and those resulting from protracted political instability following 10 years of armed conflict.
This paper discusses what approaches to ‘lifelong learning’ should guide the post-2015 education ... more This paper discusses what approaches to ‘lifelong learning’ should guide the post-2015 education agenda for the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) which refers to a group of 49 countries that are off-track in achieving most of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Education for All goals. Reports prepared by major consultation groups such as the High Level Panel established by the United Nations and Global Thematic Consultation Group have proposed that ‘providing quality education and lifelong learning’ is an overarching post-2015 education agenda. It is an important breakthrough since ‘lifelong learning’ has been recommended; however, it is not clear what understanding(s) of lifelong learning has been articulated in those documents. How have those recommendations addressed the issues and challenges of the LDCs? In this paper, I review literature on lifelong learning and analyse major documents related to the post-2015 education agenda, especially the one prepared by UN High Level Panel. I conclude that unless the LDCs are given a leadership role for setting their goals—according to their contextual realities—the post-2015 millennium initiatives, such as ‘lifelong learning’ as a new educational agenda, will make no sense.
This paper critically analyses key educational policy documents produced by the World Bank mainly... more This paper critically analyses key educational policy documents produced by the World Bank mainly from the mid-1980s to 2010 with regard to implementing major educational projects in Nepal. Using critical policy sociology as a methodological tool, the paper explores how a small Himalayan nation with per capita income of about US$730 (2014) plunged into neoliberal world order during the early 1980s. The paper argues that Bank's educational policy recommendations are guided by some underlying assumptions of neoliberalism mainly marketisation, privatisation, and decentralisation. The paper concludes that neoliberal orientation in education has almost no potential in addressing Nepal's development challenges.
In capitalistic society freedom of individuals for making profits and accumulating wealth is unde... more In capitalistic society freedom of individuals for making profits and accumulating wealth is understood as a universal truth. Competition among people equipped with this limited notion of freedom is taken as an inevitable prerequisite for achieving prosperity. The current body of scholarship lacks proper explanation of what makes capitalism so hegemonic that it continuously shapes human beliefs and practices. The paper argues that this limited notion of freedom has shaped our imaginary, thoughts and actions. Few people have benefitted but this imaginary has made our societies increasingly unequal and unjust. The paper conceptualises popular education as an alternative approach not only for critiquing the hegemony of capitalism but also for the creation of a more just society. The paper concludes that “popular education” could provide some useful conceptual tools—mainly conscientisation, problem posing method, study circles, and critical pedagogy—as enabling conditions to critically examine some of the hegemonic assumptions of capitalism intractably embedded in our beliefs and thoughts.
The idea of learning rooted in behavioural psychology has become dominant in the field of teachin... more The idea of learning rooted in behavioural psychology has become dominant in the field of teaching and learning for several decades. Even though it has been widely used in formal education it is inadequate for informing lifelong learning policies and plans. In this paper, first I critique the psychological foundation of learning and in the second part, drawing on Habermasian conceptualisation of three structural components of the lifeworld (culture, society, and personality), I conceptualise the three components as the social foundations of learning: learning as cultural reproduction, learning as social integration and learning as socialisation. In the context of the UN's declaration of 'lifelong learning' as one of the Sustainable Development Goals, this paper will be useful for developing policies to address challenges faced by individual countries at cultural, societal and individual levels.
The concepts of adult education, adult literacy, and lifelong learning—about which several books ... more The concepts of adult education, adult literacy, and lifelong learning—about which several books and journal articles are written—have been interpreted in several ways. Educational policy documents produced by supranational organisations such as the European Union and the World Bank use these terms, especially lifelong learning, to suit their own political and economic interests. Those terms are then used in policy documents produced at national levels because nation states are highly interconnected with those organisations. Nepal makes a special case because of its overreliance on external donors such as the World Bank for financing several developmental programmes, including educational ones. This paper explores how the terms adult literacy and lifelong learning are interpreted in Nepalese educational policy documents. By analysing Nepal’s key educational policy documents, the paper examines how the term adult education is narrowly understood as literacy. In the second section, the paper examines how the notion of lifelong learning is vaguely used in Nepalese educational policy documents as an alternative term for adult literacy.
Funding for adult education was a major problem in Education for All decade (2000-2015) hence adu... more Funding for adult education was a major problem in Education for All decade (2000-2015) hence adult education related goal was not achieved. Taking the stock from EFA a new set of goals have been declared for next 15 years (2016-2030). This paper analyses key documents produced towards setting Sustainable Development Goals 2030 and Education 2030 goals with a special focus on financing adult education for Least Developed Countries. The paper focuses on what funding modality is recommended, especially for LDCs, and the potential of this modality to ensure learning opportunities for millions of illiterate adults living in LDCs.
This paper problematizes the terms ‘developing countries’, ‘third world’ and ‘global south’ and a... more This paper problematizes the terms ‘developing countries’, ‘third world’ and ‘global south’ and argues in favour of ‘the Least Developed Countries (LDCs)’ as a category to explore the relevance of lifelong learning for poor nations. It argues that foreign assistance is a hindrance to enable the people of LDC to solve their problems and explores how humanistic approach to lifelong learning – that goes against the idea of knowledge based economy – could direct us towards the development of a pro-poor model of lifelong for solving the problems of those impoverished nations.
This paper critically examines some key documents published
towards formulating a set of post-201... more This paper critically examines some key documents published towards formulating a set of post-2015 development as well as educational goals. The paper argues that even though ‘lifelong learning for all’ has been recommended as an overarching post-2015 educational goal adult education is not considered important. The paper identifies three major factors— overemphasis on measurements and comparisons, overreliance on corporate financing, and transnational governance of education—creating roadblocks for setting more holistic goals of education. The paper concludes that despite the importance of providing equitable educational opportunities especially to the adults of the most impoverished nations of the global South—known as the Least Developed Countries—adult education sector is completely neglected in the documents shaping post-2015 educational agendas.
BOOK REVIEW: Cain, S. (2012). Quiet: The power of introverts
in a world that can't stop talking. ... more BOOK REVIEW: Cain, S. (2012). Quiet: The power of introverts in a world that can't stop talking. New York, NY: Crown Publishers. 333 pages. ISBN: 9780307352149.
Karlan and Appel present a number of case studies carried out in economically poor countries such... more Karlan and Appel present a number of case studies carried out in economically poor countries such as Ghana, India, Kenya, and Bangladesh to examine the effectiveness of developmental projects launched to reduce poverty. This book is also about how individual philanthropists of the developed world can help people of low-income countries improve their socioeconomic conditions. The authors use the Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT) as a method for assessing problems connected to poverty. They examine change in the lives of individuals with access to development programs such as microcredit, which involves " provision of small loans to the poor " (p. 9). Karlan and Appel go on to compare these peoples' lives with those who did not have access to microcredit. In all of the case studies, the authors show how small details could be a tool for assessing the effectiveness of development projects. " Getting poor people to borrow money has become one of the best hopes for alleviating poverty " (p. 57), but the problem with this is that poor people in the developing world hesitate to take loans. In their case studies, Karlan and Appel explain why poor people are reluctant to take loans. Firstly, many poor people do not perceive the provision of loans as a miracle cure for their problems; rather, they perceive it as a debt with a great challenge to repay. Secondly, many poor people are excluded from obtaining loans because of lenders' " restrictions on the use of borrowed money " (p. 74). For example, in the case of Sri Lanka, Karlan and Appel find that borrowers were allowed to take loans only for financing business activities. But the reality was that everybody was not willing to and capable of conducting business. The book has 308 pages and 12 chapters with short and simple headings such as To Buy, To Borrow, and To Save. The first half of the book takes a close look at microcredit, whereas in the second half, the authors try to convince donors to examine individual projects in terms of their potential impact on reducing poverty before making donations. Full of illustrations and metaphorical expressions, this is an easily readable book that could be persuasive to donors who would like to donate to projects focused on the reduction of poverty. The authors are successful in persuading potential donors that " good intentions " (p. 3) expressed in the provision of loans to the poor are not enough to solve the problem of poverty. Karlan and Appel claim that small development actions such as the provision of microcredit should be scaled up so as to bring larger spillover effects in the endeavour to reduce poverty on a
The modern history of Nepal started after the Kingdom of Nepal was formed during the 1760s throug... more The modern history of Nepal started after the Kingdom of Nepal was formed during the 1760s through a series of military battles, which is now known as a national unification campaign, led by Prithvi Narayan Shah. The history of mass education, however, started during the 1950s when a political uprising overthrew autocratic Rana regime that had ruled the country for more than a century. This paper aims to explore Nepal's educational history by analysing key educational policy documents produced by the Government of Nepal as well as its major donor the World Bank from 1950 to 2020. The paper uses international political economy as a theoretical framework and critical policy sociology as a methodological approach. The key argument of the paper is that, since some of the problematic assumptions of modernism, nationalism, and globalism have guided Nepal's policy agendas, its education system has not addressed multifarious challenges faced by its citizens. The theoretical and methodological approaches taken for exploring the interconnections between education, economy, and politics will be helpful for future researchers to understand the significance of education not only for economic development but also for the institutionalization of democracy in both developed and developing countries.
Méthod(e)s: African Review of Social Sciences Methodology, 2017
Critical discourse analysis (CDA) stresses that language use, discourse, and communication should... more Critical discourse analysis (CDA) stresses that language use, discourse, and communication should be studied in their social, cultural and political contexts. A considerable amount of literature has been produced and the use of CDA as a research methodology has been so wide across various disciplines of social sciences. The current body of literature in the field reflects two major aspects of CDA: Linguistic aspect and critical aspect. However, the philosophical aspect of CDA, especially its ontological and epistemological underpinnings, which in a sense guides other two aspects, is not fully elaborated. This paper summarizes linguistic and critical aspects of CDA and explores major philosophical underpinnings of CDA with the help of four aporias of research methodology introduced by Patti Lather.
Several theories of development—such as modernisation, dependency, world system, and postcolonial... more Several theories of development—such as modernisation, dependency, world system, and postcolonial—are found in current body of literature, however, similarities and differences of these theories are not clearly articulated. This paper reviewed key scholarly literature of this field and found that major theories of development stem from three foundational models: modernist model, dependency model, and postdevelopment model. The modernist model assumes that development is a form of positive change in human societies, occurs in stages, and has a fixed route applicable to all societies. The dependency model, on the other hand, challenges the assumptions of modernist model and argues that socioeconomic prosperity of developing countries is not possible without dismantling global capitalistic system. Finally, the postdevelopment model questions the very idea of developmentalism advocated by modernist and dependency models; rather it argues that development is an ideological discourse constructed by the West hence there is an urgency of not only alternative of development theories but an alternative to the idea of development itself.
International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 2019
In recent decades, educational policy researchers have considered critical policy sociology, most... more In recent decades, educational policy researchers have considered critical policy sociology, mostly known as ?policy sociology?, as a useful research methodology for analysing educational policies. However, despite its increasing popularity, policy sociology has been a confusing concept hence it is often used interchangeably with other terms such as policy analysis. In the main, there is a dearth of literature outlining its key underlying assumptions and how this methodology helps policy researchers to analyse social, political and economic issues related to educational policy. By reviewing current body of literature in the field, this paper identifies policy sociology as one of the four major traditions in the policy analysis field. The paper presents six key underlying assumptions of policy sociology: value based study, political study, historical study, multidisciplinary study, assemblage study, and discourse study and discusses how researchers have used policy sociology as a research methodology for analysing educational policies.
Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 2021
In the context of educational globalisation, the role of supranational organisations in shaping t... more In the context of educational globalisation, the role of supranational organisations in shaping the educational policy decisions, especially of aid-dependent countries, has increased. Using global governance as a theoretical framework and Critical Policy Sociology (CPS) as a methodological framework, this paper analysed key educational policy documents produced by the World Bank (WB) and the Government of Nepal (GON), as well as interviews conducted with 13 key educational planners in Nepal. The analysis found that the nature and scope of educational management has changed because of the shift from traditional government to a new governance mechanism. In this new mechanism, educational governance is shared among international donors, the private sector and the GON. As Nepal’s educational policy decisions are increasingly shaped by international donors, educational strategies recommended by them have shaped Nepal’s educational policy and planning decisions.
In the context of educational globalization and increasing dominance of supranational organizatio... more In the context of educational globalization and increasing dominance of supranational organizations in educational governance, least developed countries (LDCs) have faced a new level of tension about whether their educational policies should follow the global educational models or seek solutions of their multifarious problems by promoting local indigenous literacy practices. This article critically analyzed key educational policy documents produced by major supranational organizations and selected LDCs and argues that the deficit perspective in education started in the colonial period and institutionalized during the structural adjustment period has shaped literacy policies and practices even after the 1990s. The article concludes with an appeal for developing contextually relevant literacy policies and programs through an asset perspective; and provides directions for further research for exploring LDCs? literacy policies.
Though government funding has shrunk, Nepal’s higher education (HE) sector has expanded in the la... more Though government funding has shrunk, Nepal’s higher education (HE) sector has expanded in the last three decades in terms of the establishment of new institutions and the implementation of a series of projects funded by the World Bank. Using neoliberal instrumentalism as a theoretical framework and critical policy sociology as a methodological tool, this paper analysed key policy documents produced by the World Bank and the Government of Nepal for implementing three most recent HE projects in Nepal. The paper argues that a new version of human capital theory, which stems from neoliberal instrumentalism in education, has guided HE policies and practices of Nepal. Though a number of reform strategies are implemented with the aim of increasing performance and competition, the HE sector has become increasingly unresponsive to the needs of Nepali communities and societies.
Lifelong learning has become a catchword in almost all countries because of its growing influence... more Lifelong learning has become a catchword in almost all countries because of its growing influence on education policies in the globalised world. In the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU), the promotion of lifelong learning has been a strategy to speed up economic growth and become competitive. For UNESCO and the World Bank, lifelong learning has been a novel education model to improve educational policies and programmes in developing countries. In the existing body of literature on the topic, various models of lifelong learning are discussed. After reviewing a number of relevant seminal texts by proponents of a variety of schools, this paper argues that the vast number of approaches are actually built on two foundational models, which the author calls the “human capital model” and the “humanistic model”. The former aims to increase productive capacity by encouraging competition, privatisation and human capital formation so as to enhance economic growth. The latter aims to strengthen democracy and social welfare by fostering citizenship education, building social capital and expanding capability.
Amidst growing criticisms of global financial institutions, primarily the World Bank, this articl... more Amidst growing criticisms of global financial institutions, primarily the World Bank, this article explores their influence on educational programme planning in some of the impoverished nations known as the Least Developed Countries (LDCs). The domination of these institutions originates not only from their monetary power but also from the hegemonic ideas they spread: the theory of human capital and the technical-rational model have long guided educational programme planning. In the context of increasing control of educational governance by supranational organizations, this article explores how these ideologies are constraining the capacities of poor nations to make sovereign decisions and set their own educational goals and priorities. Nepal provides a special case. In recent decades it has faced policy changes because of two sets of conditions: those imposed by the World Bank and those resulting from protracted political instability following 10 years of armed conflict.
This paper discusses what approaches to ‘lifelong learning’ should guide the post-2015 education ... more This paper discusses what approaches to ‘lifelong learning’ should guide the post-2015 education agenda for the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) which refers to a group of 49 countries that are off-track in achieving most of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Education for All goals. Reports prepared by major consultation groups such as the High Level Panel established by the United Nations and Global Thematic Consultation Group have proposed that ‘providing quality education and lifelong learning’ is an overarching post-2015 education agenda. It is an important breakthrough since ‘lifelong learning’ has been recommended; however, it is not clear what understanding(s) of lifelong learning has been articulated in those documents. How have those recommendations addressed the issues and challenges of the LDCs? In this paper, I review literature on lifelong learning and analyse major documents related to the post-2015 education agenda, especially the one prepared by UN High Level Panel. I conclude that unless the LDCs are given a leadership role for setting their goals—according to their contextual realities—the post-2015 millennium initiatives, such as ‘lifelong learning’ as a new educational agenda, will make no sense.
This paper critically analyses key educational policy documents produced by the World Bank mainly... more This paper critically analyses key educational policy documents produced by the World Bank mainly from the mid-1980s to 2010 with regard to implementing major educational projects in Nepal. Using critical policy sociology as a methodological tool, the paper explores how a small Himalayan nation with per capita income of about US$730 (2014) plunged into neoliberal world order during the early 1980s. The paper argues that Bank's educational policy recommendations are guided by some underlying assumptions of neoliberalism mainly marketisation, privatisation, and decentralisation. The paper concludes that neoliberal orientation in education has almost no potential in addressing Nepal's development challenges.
In capitalistic society freedom of individuals for making profits and accumulating wealth is unde... more In capitalistic society freedom of individuals for making profits and accumulating wealth is understood as a universal truth. Competition among people equipped with this limited notion of freedom is taken as an inevitable prerequisite for achieving prosperity. The current body of scholarship lacks proper explanation of what makes capitalism so hegemonic that it continuously shapes human beliefs and practices. The paper argues that this limited notion of freedom has shaped our imaginary, thoughts and actions. Few people have benefitted but this imaginary has made our societies increasingly unequal and unjust. The paper conceptualises popular education as an alternative approach not only for critiquing the hegemony of capitalism but also for the creation of a more just society. The paper concludes that “popular education” could provide some useful conceptual tools—mainly conscientisation, problem posing method, study circles, and critical pedagogy—as enabling conditions to critically examine some of the hegemonic assumptions of capitalism intractably embedded in our beliefs and thoughts.
International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology , 2017
Despite its popularity as a strategy for sustainable development in the global South, ecotourism ... more Despite its popularity as a strategy for sustainable development in the global South, ecotourism has had a mixed record in enhancing the socio-economic conditions of the rural populace. We argue that part of this failure lies in the fact that the theory and practice of ecotourism, like conventional mass tourism, has been guided by a modernisation approach to development. In this paper, we outline the historical evolution of ecotourism policy in Nepal, review the present global policy agenda of ‘ecotourism for development’, and offer a critique of modernist forms of ecotourism. Using empirical research from secondary sources on ecotourism in Nepal, we then discuss the economic, social, educational, and environmental benefits of community-based ecotourism. We conclude that to achieve sustainable development goals in Nepal and other poor countries of the global South, the focus of ecotourism for development should shift from modernist, ‘economist’ forms of ecotourism to more locally controlled, participatory forms of community-based ecotourism for sustainable development.
A massive earthquake of 7.6 magnitudes on 25 April 2015 and a major aftershock of 6.8 magnitudes ... more A massive earthquake of 7.6 magnitudes on 25 April 2015 and a major aftershock of 6.8 magnitudes on 12 May 2015 hit central Nepal. The earthquake took the lives of about 9000 people, injured about 24,000 and affected one-third of Nepal’s total population (28 million). Despite a huge amount of money (US$ 4.4 billion) pledged by the international community, reconstruction works could not take place on time. Using participatory approach to reconstruction and development as a theoretical framework and reflexivity as a methodological tool, this paper argues that the delay in reconstruction was caused by the inability of the Government of Nepal (GON) as well as the international community, mainly donors, to encourage local participation. The amount of loan pledged by the international community has increased Nepal’s debt stock rather than really helping those who are affected by the disaster. The paper concludes that the modernist top-down model of development – that both government and donors take for granted – has created roadblocks towards understanding Nepal’s contextual realities. Sustainable reconstruction and development cannot be achieved without strengthening the capability of local communities.
Major supranational organisations such as the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Developme... more Major supranational organisations such as the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, the European Union, and the World Bank have used lifelong learning as a strategy to boost economic competitiveness both at individual and national levels. In the literature related to lifelong learning this is characterised as the economistic model of lifelong learning. The humanistic model of lifelong learning, which appears as an alternative of the economistic model, takes education and learning as a fundamental human right for all individuals irrespective of their age, gender and class. However, this model is criticised as a vague, rhetorical and utopian ideal with little potential for informing educational policy decisions at national level. Using some key Habermasian conceptualisations, mainly the colonisation of the lifeworld and communicative rationality, this paper argues that three major dimensions of human learning informed by Habermas – transformative, citizenship and intersubjective – can contribute towards the development of a more comprehensive model of lifelong learning.
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towards formulating a set of post-2015 development as well
as educational goals. The paper argues that even though
‘lifelong learning for all’ has been recommended as an overarching
post-2015 educational goal adult education is not
considered important. The paper identifies three major factors—
overemphasis on measurements and comparisons,
overreliance on corporate financing, and transnational governance
of education—creating roadblocks for setting more
holistic goals of education. The paper concludes that despite
the importance of providing equitable educational opportunities
especially to the adults of the most impoverished nations
of the global South—known as the Least Developed
Countries—adult education sector is completely neglected
in the documents shaping post-2015 educational agendas.
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in a world that can't stop talking. New York, NY: Crown
Publishers. 333 pages. ISBN: 9780307352149.
articles
towards formulating a set of post-2015 development as well
as educational goals. The paper argues that even though
‘lifelong learning for all’ has been recommended as an overarching
post-2015 educational goal adult education is not
considered important. The paper identifies three major factors—
overemphasis on measurements and comparisons,
overreliance on corporate financing, and transnational governance
of education—creating roadblocks for setting more
holistic goals of education. The paper concludes that despite
the importance of providing equitable educational opportunities
especially to the adults of the most impoverished nations
of the global South—known as the Least Developed
Countries—adult education sector is completely neglected
in the documents shaping post-2015 educational agendas.
in a world that can't stop talking. New York, NY: Crown
Publishers. 333 pages. ISBN: 9780307352149.