Richard Unsworth

ABSTRACT Seagrass meadows are critical components of Indo-Pacific tropical marine environments providing some of the most economically important ecosystem services of any marine habitat. Many coastal traditional ways of life are intricately associated with seagrasses for food, recreation and spiritual fulfilment. These unique marine flowering plants are found mainly in clear, shallow, sheltered, estuarine and coastal waters with as many as 24 of the worlds '72 seagrass species found in the region.

The flow of ecosystem services from coral reefs, seagrass meadows and mangrove forests sustains the livelihoods of billions of people worldwide. Faced with the global degradation of marine and coastal ecosystems, policy-makers are increasingly focusing on ecosystem service valuation techniques to encourage conservation and sustainable use of marine resources. Here we provide a review and synthesis of the available information on economic valuation techniques as applied to tropical marine habitats. Our study demonstrates the high variability and lack of consistency in outcomes from these studies. We conclude that, if the concept of ecosystem goods and services is to make a positive contribution towards managing the impacts of humans on the environment, then economic valuation approaches must reflect the inherent limitations of economic theory whilst emphasising the complexity and heterogeneity of the natural environment and human decision-making.

Seagrass ecosystems are diminishing worldwide and repeated studies confirm a lack of appreciation for the value of these systems. In order to highlight their value we provide the first discussion of seagrass meadows as a coupled social–ecological system on a global scale. We consider the impact of a declining resource on people, including those for whom seagrass meadows are utilised for income generation and a source of food security through fisheries support. Case studies from across the globe are used to demonstrate the intricate relationship between seagrass meadows and people that highlight the multi-functional role of seagrasses in human wellbeing. While each case underscores unique issues, these examples simultaneously reveal social–ecological coupling that transcends cultural and geographical boundaries. We conclude that understanding seagrass meadows as a coupled social–ecological system is crucial in carving pathways for social and ecological resilience in light of current patterns of local to global environmental change.

Seagrass meadows are declining globally at an unprecedented rate, yet these valuable ecosystem service providers remain marginalized within many conservation agendas. In the Indo-Pacific, this is principally because marine conservation priorities do not recognize the economic and ecological value of the goods and services that seagrasses provide. Dependency on coastal marine resources in the Indo-Pacific for daily protein needs is high relative to other regions and has been found in some places to be up to 100%. Habitat loss therefore may have negative consequences for food security in the region. Whether seagrass resources comprise an important contribution to this dependency remains largely untested. Here, we assemble information sources from throughout the Indo-Pacific region that discuss shallow water fisheries, and examine the role of seagrass meadows in supporting production, both directly, and indirectly through process of habitat connectivity (e.g., nursery function and foraging areas). We find information to support the premise that seagrass meadows are important for fisheries production. They are important fishery areas, and they support the productivity and biodiversity of coral reefs. We argue the value of a different paradigm to the current consensus on marine conservation priorities within the Indo-Pacific that places seagrass conservation as a priority.

The tropical seascape provides food and livelihoods to hundreds of millions of people, but the support of key habitats to this supply remains ill appreciated. For fisheries and conservation management actions to help promote resilient ecosystems, sustainable livelihoods, and food supply, knowledge is required about the habitats that help support fisheries productivity and the consequences of this for food security. This paper provides an interdisciplinary case study from the coral triangle of how seagrass meadows provide support for fisheries and local food security. We apply a triangulated approach that utilizes ecological, fisheries and market data combined with over 250 household interviews. Our research demonstrates that seagrass associated fauna in a coral triangle marine protected area support local food supply contributing at least 50% of the fish based food. This formed between 54% and 99% of daily protein intake in the area. Fishery catch was found to significantly vary with respect to village (p?<?0.01) with habitat configuration a probable driver. Juvenile fish comprised 26% of the fishery catch and gear type significantly influenced this proportion (<0.05). Limited sustainability of fishery practices (high juvenile catch and a 51% decline in CPUE for the biggest fishery) and poor habitat management mean the security of this food supply has the potential to be undermined in the long-term. Findings of this study have implications for the management and assessment of fisheries throughout the tropical seascape. Our study provides an exemplar for why natural resource management should move beyond biodiversity and consider how conservation and local food security are interlinked processes that are not mutually exclusive. Seagrass meadows are under sustained threat worldwide, this study provides evidence of the need to conserve these not just to protect biodiversity but to protect food security.

Future impacts from climate change and human activities may increase the likelihood of invasions of native marine species into existing habitats as a result of range shifts. To provide an understanding of the invasion of a native seagrass species (Syringodiumisoetifolium) into a tropical multi-species meadow, detailed field assessments were conducted over a six year period. After establishing in a discrete patch, the extent and standing crop of S.isoetifolium increased 800 and 7000 fold, respectively, between 1988 and 2003 (∼300-260,000 m(2) and<1kgDW to 7596±555kgDW). The expansion of S.isoetifolium was confined to subtidal areas and appears primarily from clonal growth. The observed expansion of this species into a new locality was found to be clearly influenced by cumulative impacts and chronic small-scale physical disturbances. This study has immediate relevance to managing impacts which influence the spread of invasive species.

Despite being under continued anthropogenic threat, there exists limited evidence in the United Kingdom (UK) and northern Europe for the role of sub-tidal Zostera marina meadows in providing habitat in support of economically important fauna. This is a major issue given the need to support fisheries production into the future. Understanding this at a regional and local scale is important given that their ecosystem service value can change with factors such as environmental gradients and anthropogenic impacts. In the present study, we investigate the role of sub-tidal seagrass in supporting motile fauna including juvenile fish and invertebrates of commercial value. Seagrass meadows in three locations in the UK (Porthdinllaen, Tremadog Bay and the Isle of Wight) were examined using stereo Baited Remote Underwater Video systems (BRUVs). Twenty-six taxa were recorded, ten of which were of economic importance, including an abundance of juvenile gadoids. Although the commercially important species that we found as juveniles in seagrass are not obligate seagrass users, the resources that seagrass meadows offer to these fish potentially provide significant long-term fitness benefits, possibly enhancing the whole population. All sites sampled contained economically important fauna, but there existed a significant difference between the assemblages at different locations, with the sites in the Isle of Wight containing an impoverished fauna. Sites sampled in North Wales contained double the abundance of individuals and over three times the number of species than those in the Isle of Wight. This highlights that ecosystem services such as habitat provision are not constant between sites and possibly impacted upon by site condition and locally specific environmental differences. The present study provides evidence of the importance of seagrass meadows in the UK for supporting biodiversity and the need to protect these sensitive habitats.

The long-term changes of tropical intertidal seagrass, mainly Halodule uninervis and Halophila ovalis meadows and their relationship to climate are poorly documented. Developing a greater understanding of the effects of climate on seagrass meadows is critical for estimating the effects of future climate change scenarios. Here we document the temporal dynamics of coastal intertidal seagrass in tropical northeast Australia over 16 yr of detailed monitoring. This study is the first to directly relate such change to long-term climate variability in the Indo-Pacific region and southern hemisphere. Regression modelling was used to relate seagrass biomass and meadow area measurements to climate data. The aboveground biomass and area of the meadow were correlated with the interacting factors of air temperature, precipitation, daytime tidal exposure and freshwater runoff from nearby rivers. Elevated temperature and reduced flow from rivers were significantly correlated (R2 = 0.6, p < 0.001) with periods of lower seagrass biomass. Results of this study have important implications for the long-term viability of seagrasses with regard to climate change scenarios. Modelling of our findings indicates that future higher temperatures could be detrimental to Indo-Pacific intertidal, coastal and estuarine seagrass meadows.

Abstract Highly productive tropical seagrasses often live adjacent to or among coral reefs and utilize large amounts of inorganic carbon. In this study, the effect of seagrass productivity on seawater carbonate chemistry and coral calcification was modelled on the basis of an analysis of published data.

Marine ecosystems throughout the Indo-Pacific region are highly threatened by anthropogenic stressors, yet the faunal interaction between different component habitats remains poorly understood. This information is vital as stress on one inter-connected habitat may have cascade effects on other habitats. The present study focused on the impact of inter-habitat connectivity on seagrass fish assemblages, specifically between seagrass, mangrove and reef habitats. Fish were sampled using a seine net within 3 seagrass habitats (seagrass near to reef, seagrass near to reef and mangrove, and seagrass near to mangrove) within eastern Indonesia. Visual surveys were also conducted within mangrove habitats. Fish abundance and species richness in seagrass beds in close proximity to mangroves was at least twice that found in seagrass beds that were distant from mangrove habitat. The trophic structures of seagrass fish assemblages change from being dominated by predators and omnivores close to the reef, to assemblages high in planktivores and herbivores close to mangroves. We found that mangroves enhance the fish assemblages of nearby seagrass beds probably by increasing the availability of shelter and food provision. This study indicates that Indo-Pacific seagrass beds play an important fish nursery role, which is influenced by the availability of nearby reef and mangrove habitats. Our research supports the need for ecosystem-level management of shallow water tropical habitats, but also suggests that successful management requires local-level knowledge of habitat interactions to successfully enhance or conserve fish assemblages.

Declining water quality coupled with the effects of climate change are rapidly increasing coral diseases on reefs worldwide, although links between coral diseases and environmental parameters remain poorly understood. This is the first study to document a correlation between coral disease and water quality on an inshore reef.

The temporal dynamics of the coral disease atramentous necrosis (AN) was investigated over two years within inshore populations of Montipora aequituberculata in the central Great Barrier Reef, in relation to rainfall, salinity, temperature, water column chlorophyll a, suspended solids, sedimentation, dissolved organic carbon, and particulate nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon. Overall, mean AN prevalence was 10-fold greater during summer wet seasons than winter dry seasons. A 2.5-fold greater mean disease abundance was detected during the summer of 2009 (44 ± SE 6.7 diseased colonies per 25 m2), when rainfall was 1.6-fold greater than in the summer of 2008. Two water quality parameters explained 67% of the variance in monthly disease prevalence in a Partial Least Squares regression analysis; disease abundance was negatively correlated with salinity (R2 = −0.6) but positively correlated with water column particulate organic carbon concentration (R2 = 0.32). Seasonal temperature patterns were also positively correlated with disease abundance, but explained only a small portion of the variance.

The results suggest that rainfall and associated runoff may facilitate seasonal disease outbreaks, potentially by reducing host fitness or by increasing pathogen virulence due to higher availability of nutrients and organic matter. In the future, rainfall and seawater temperatures are likely to increase due to climate change which may lead to decreased health of inshore reefs.

Stereo Baited Remote Underwater Video systems (BRUVs) provide a quantitative sampling method for assessing mobile fauna in a range of habitat types and environments. This non-destructive and cost-effective technique is increasingly used for assessing estuarine, coastal and marine fauna. Although single camera systems have been used to assess the relative abundance (Nmax) of marine fish and invertebrates in low visibility North Atlantic near shore and coastal waters, stereo systems remain in their infancy within such environments and their use requires validation. Stereo systems that measure fish and invertebrate size enable size-frequency analysis of populations, providing critical information about life history and population status. We investigated the performance and efficacy of stereo BRUV systems within Welsh shallow coastal waters to test the effectiveness of this method. Data are presented on the capacity of the system to measure fish and invertebrate size under the constraints of low visibility (<2 m). We also present data on the required duration of deployment required to effectively sample relative fish abundance and diversity. Our study recorded 19 species of mobile fauna with species-time accumulation curves providing evidence that a minimum deployment time of 1 h is required to sample 66% of the fish species, and 2 h to sample 83%. Results suggest that the efficiency of surveys for target species (e.g. gadoids) could be maximised by modifying the sampling duration between 1 h and 2 h. The study also demonstrates that measurements of fish and invertebrate length could be taken on 41% of individuals (of those counted in relative abundance measures using Nmax), a statistic that varies between species. This indicates a need to modify the construction of the equipment for improved fish assemblage size frequency analysis. This is particularly relevant in areas and habitats where seine netting and trawling are not possible. We describe how the system can be modified for optimised usage within low visibility waters and suggest potential uses of the system.

The faunal communities of seagrass beds throughout SE Asia are highly threatened by continued overexploitation, yet their ecology is poorly understood. Developing a greater understanding of the faunal linkages between seagrass beds and associated coastal habitats can facilitate more informed ecosystem level management. The present study used beach seine netting to sample seagrass bed fish assemblages in the Wakatobi Marine National Park, Indonesia, to investigate diel migrations of fish into and out of seagrass beds. These fish assemblages were found to be diverse relative to other studies within the region, with many species being economically important to local subsistence fisheries. The abundance, species richness and trophic structure of these fish assemblages changed with time of day indicating that fish populations are in a dynamic state. Mean fish abundance increased by ≈45% from day to night (Day: 8.61 ± 0.13 fish 100 m−2; Night: 15.6 ± 1.4 fish 100 m−2) while mean species richness increased from 6.6 ± 1.9 per seine haul to 11.4 ± 0.2. Increasing abundance and diversity of fish at night suggests migration onto these habitats from nearby habitats such as reefs, mangroves or deep water; and/or increased activity of those fish resident within seagrass habitats. Division of species into trophic categories enabled the trophic structure of changing fish assemblages to be examined. Assemblages were dominated during both the day and night by invertebrate and fish feeders; however, a major diel change in trophic structure occurred in the abundance of omnivores. During the day omnivores were abundant, but they were replaced at night by exclusive invertebrate feeders. We therefore propose that diel changes in seagrass fish assemblages are predominantly structured by food availability, although other factors such as increased night-time shelter provision were also found to be important albeit to a much lesser extent.

There is strong evidence of a global long-term decline in seagrass meadows that is widely attributed to anthropogenic activity. Yet in many regions, attributing these changes to actual activities is difficult, as there exists limited understanding of the natural processes that can influence these valuable ecosystem service providers. Being able to separate natural from anthropogenic causes of seagrass change is important for developing strategies that effectively mitigate and manage anthropogenic impacts on seagrass, and promote coastal ecosystems resilient to future environmental change. The present study investigated the influence of environmental and climate related factors on seagrass biomass in a large ≈250 ha meadow in tropical north east Australia. Annual monitoring of the intertidal Enhalus acoroides (L.f.) Royle seagrass meadow over eleven years revealed a declining trend in above-ground biomass (54% significant overall reduction from 2000 to 2010). Partial Least Squares Regression found this reduction to be significantly and negatively correlated with tidal exposure, and significantly and negatively correlated with the amount of solar radiation. This study documents how natural long-term tidal variability can influence long-term seagrass dynamics. Exposure to desiccation, high UV, and daytime temperature regimes are discussed as the likely mechanisms for the action of these factors in causing this decline. The results emphasise the importance of understanding and assessing natural environmentally-driven change when interpreting the results of seagrass monitoring programs.

Abstract Groupers and reef octopus are economically and ecologically important predators on Indo-Pacific coral reefs and known as solitary hunters. Here we describe a highly unique and unusual observation of a behavioural non-random association between the highfin grouper (Epinephelus maculatus) and the reef octopus (Octopus cyanea) in the Great Barrier Reef. Such an observation is highly novel given that the association crosses both the phyla and the invertebrate to vertebrate divide.

Seagrass meadows are an ecologically and economically important resource throughout the Indo-Pacific bio-region, but ecological understanding of their faunal assemblages remains largely lacking, with faunal research mostly focussed upon studies of fish. The present study investigated the short-term temporal dynamics of caridean shrimp in relation to diel, tidal and lunar cycles. Such assemblages are important given their link between primary production and higher trophic levels such as fish. Caridean shrimp were found
to be at maximal abundance and diversity (Hill’s N2) at night and during the waxing moon, increasing by a factor of 4 at night, with assemblage structure significantly influenced by both these factors. Although subtle changes in daily tidal height had little effect upon caridean assemblages, it is thought that the lunar changes that consequentially affect tides (spring to neaps) were key influences upon why caridean shrimp are in greater abundance during the waxing moon. Discussed is the potential for caridean shrimp to undertake inter-habitat migrations in relation to these environmental cycles.

Age dependent habitat usage of the abundant Indo-Pacific Thumbprint Emporer Lethrinus harak was assessed using field visual observations throughout the mangrove, seagrass, coral reef continuum. Juveniles were most abundant
within seagrass habitats, whilst large adults only utilised the reef environment, indicating a movement towards the reef
with increasing age. No evidence was found to suggest L. harak spends a specific section of its life-cycle within mangrove however it remains an important habitat, presumably for tidally dependent feeding.

In the present study we investigated inter-annual coral disease dynamics, in situ disease progression rates, and disease-associated coral tissue mortality in the Wakatobi Marine National Park (WMNP) situated in the coral triangle in South-East Sulawesi, Indonesia. In 2005, only 2 known syndromes were recorded within the sampling area transect surveys: white syndrome (WS; 0.42% prevalence) and growth anomalies (GA; 0.15% prevalence), whilst 4 diseases were recorded in 2007: WS (0.19%), Porites ulcerative white spot disease (PUWS; 0.08%), GA (0.05%) and black band disease (BBD; 0.02%). Total disease prevalence decreased from 0.57% in 2005 to 0.33% in 2007. In addition to prevalence surveys, in situ progression rates of 4 diseases were investigated in 2007: BBD on Pachyseris foliosa, P. rugosa and Diploastrea heliopora, WS on Acropora clathrata, and brown band (BrB) and skeletal eroding band (SEB) diseases on Acropora pulchra. BrB and WS had the highest progression rates, 1.2 ± 0.36 and 1.1 ± 0.07 cm d–1, respectively, indicating that diseases may have a significant impact on local Acropora populations. BBD had the lowest progression rate (0.39 ± 0.14 cm d–1). WS caused the most severe recorded total tissue mortality: 53923 cm2 over a period of 36 d. Sedimentation and coral cover were studied and a highly significant drop in coral cover was observed. This study provides the first documentation of spatio-temporal coral disease dynamics from Indonesia. Despite low total disease prevalence, progression rates comparable to the ones observed in the Caribbean and Australia indicate that diseases may threaten the reef framework in some locations and add to the degradation of coral reefs in a region already at high risk from anthropogenic impacts.

This book owes its existence to the diversity and depth of research conducted in the Wakatobi National Park over the past ten years by a range of academics from the natural and social sciences, all of whom have a shared interest in marine conservation.

ABSTRACT The Wakatobi National Park (WNP) is Indonesia's second largest marine national park, covering an area of 1.39 million hectares and comprising an array of highly diverse coral reefs, seagrass meadows, mangrove forests and other marine habitats. Research has revealed that many of these habitats are linked as a result of faunal, detritus and/or nutrient movements.

ABSTRACT Seagrasses are abundant marine plants that form large areas of shallow water marine habitat throughout the Wakatobi National Park (WNP). Although there are only a small number of seagrass species in the region, the habitat they create contains a diverse and abundant fauna that has enormous ecological and economic importance to the marine park.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report details results from the October/December 2008 seagrass monitoring survey for Cairns Harbour and Trinity Inlet and discusses changes in inter-annual seagrass meadow dynamics. Following a baseline survey of Cairns Harbour and Trinity Inlet, a monitoring program was established in December 2001 that annually examines selected representative seagrass meadows in the area.

Seagrass are sensitive to environmental changes and can be monitored to detect human influences to coastal ecosystems. Measurable changes in seagrass abundance, distribution and condition provide resource managers with advance signs of deteriorating ecological conditions caused by poor water quality. For this reason, seagrasses are considered biological sentinels. The Great Barrier Reef's (GBR) inshore seagrasses are being monitored as part of the Reef Rescue Marine Monitoring Programme (MMP).

Declining water quality coupled with the effects of climate change are rapidly increasing coral diseases on reefs worldwide, although links between coral diseases and environmental parameters remain poorly understood. This is the first study to document a correlation between coral disease and water quality on an inshore reef. The temporal dynamics of the coral disease atramentous necrosis (AN) was investigated over two years within inshore populations of Montipora aequituberculata in the central Great Barrier Reef, in relation to rainfall, salinity, temperature, water column chlorophyll a, suspended solids, sedimentation, dissolved organic carbon, and particulate nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon. Overall, mean AN prevalence was 10-fold greater during summer wet seasons than winter dry seasons. A 2.5-fold greater mean disease abundance was detected during the summer of 2009 (44 SE 6.7 diseased colonies per 25 m2), when rainfall was 1.6-fold greater than in the summer of 2008. Two water quality parameters explained 67% of the variance in monthly disease prevalence in a Partial Least Squares regression analysis; disease abundance was negatively correlated with salinity (R2 =20.6) but positively correlated with water column particulate organic carbon concentration (R2 = 0.32). Seasonal temperature patterns were also positively correlated with disease abundance, but explained only a small portion of the variance. The results suggest that rainfall and associated runoff may facilitate seasonal disease outbreaks, potentially by reducing host fitness or by increasing pathogen virulence due to higher availability of nutrients and organic matter. In the future, rainfall and seawater temperatures are likely to increase due to climate change which may lead to decreased health of inshore reefs.

The present study considered the influence of the tide on shallow water fish assemblages within the Wakatobi Marine National Park, Indonesia. Timed underwater visual observations were made across a gradient of intertidal to subtidal habitats from near-shore to reef crest at different tidal heights. Transient fish were found to dominate shallow water fish assemblages and the assemblage composition varied with tidal state. Fish assemblages were more diverse and abundant at higher tides both coral and sea grass habitats, however, this was more pronounced within sea grass habitats. A tidal reduction from ≈2.0m to ≈0.8m (above chart datum) corresponded to a 30% reduction in fish abundance, while species richness also significantly decreased from 13.5 to 10.8 species per standardized timed observation. Fifty fish groups were reported from sea grass habitats with the most abundant being from the Engraulidae family and Lethrinus harak, which form important local subsistence fisheries. This research confirms the importance of tidal changes in structuring the fish fauna of Indonesian sea grass habitats and underlines the connectivity that exists between these habitats and nearby coral reefs.

The functional importance of herbivory is well established within terrestrial ecosystems yet within marine ecosystems, specifically seagrass beds, consumption by herbivores has generally been considered to be of little importance due to its minor contribution to turnover of growth. The present paper challenges this assumption within the Indo-Pacific and shows that scarid (parrotfish) herbivory may have a functionally important role in the export of seagrass detrital material. Estimation of scarid herbivory on dominant Indo-Pacific seagrass species was conducted using a three pronged approach. We estimated: background levels of scarid seagrass bites; in-situ rates of grazing using tethering experiments; and seagrass grazing effect per individual scarid, which was scaled up to estimate the grazing effects of the local scarid population. All research was carried out within the Wakatobi Marine National Park, Indonesia. Research found scarid herbivory to be an important process within an Indo-Pacific seagrass bed causing the loss of up to ten times (average, four times) the daily seagrass growth. T. hemprichii was found to be lost at a rate of 0.28 ± 0.08 g DW day−1, while E. acoroides was lost at a rate of 2.85 ± 0.43 g DW day−1. We propose that such high rates of seagrass consumption are the combined effects of seasonally high grazing rates by resident scarids and short-term effects from shoals of juvenile reef scarids. Scarid grazing was indiscriminate between seagrass species and grazing was dependant on seagrass availability rather than nutritional quality. In conclusion, the present research finds scarids to be major herbivores within an Indo-Pacific seagrass bed; they not only take up carbon into the food chain through direct seagrass consumption, but also make an important indirect contribution to the detrital food chain through the export of discarded decaying seagrass material.

This paper used the case study of the Wakatobi Marine National Park, Indonesia to examine changes in the diversity, density and maturity of grouper species over a 5-year period following the establishment of a small-scale no-take area (NTA). This work was carried out to investigate whether “small” NTAs could be effective management strategies over a time scale that is relevant to local fishery communities and their perception of management success. Our research also documents the ecology of these species, information essential if we are to understand how management practises are to affect coral reef fish species. Designation of this “small NTA” increased the density of groupers by 30% over a 5-year period of protected status. After 5 years of protection, grouper populations within this NTA were more mature and double the density of those within the adjacent lightly fished sites and nearly five times those of a heavily fished site. During this time all other nearby fished sites underwent large declines in grouper density. The nearby lightly fished Kaledupa site decreased by up to 50% year−1. Such drastic declines are considered the impact of the exponential development of ever efficient and unsustainable methods of fishing within the study region. This NTA was not of benefit to all grouper species; the reasons for which are not clear. Such questions require further detailed research about the life history, population and behavioural ecology of Indo-Pacific grouper species. Such information is critical for urgently needed fisheries management. The present study found that a small scale NTA of 500 m length was large enough to increase the population of top predatory fish. In conjunction with other socially acceptable small scale NTAs it could help maintain and increase important fish stocks over a larger area. The use of “small” NTAs within networks of reserves should become a useful tool in the management of the locally exploited coral reefs.

Caridean shrimp were used as a model group to investigate the effects of seagrass floral habitat complexity on Indo-Pacific fauna. Relationships between shrimp and seagrass habitat characteristics were explored using both multivariate and multiple linear regression modelling approaches. Epifaunal shrimp assemblages were sampled in the Wakatobi Marine National Park, Indonesia. Seagrass habitat complexity had a significant positive impact on shrimp abundance (F3,59 = 17.51, P < 0.001) and species richness (F3,59 = 10.88, P < 0.001), while significantly altering shrimp assemblage structure (ANOSIM global R = 0.397, P < 0.001). In contrast to studies from other bioregions and faunal groups, species diversity and evenness were inversely related to habitat complexity. Changes in shrimp abundance, diversity and assemblage structure with habitat complexity are considered to reflect changes in individual species habitat specialisation. High complexity habitats were dominated by habitat specialists, whereas low complexity seagrass had higher numbers of habitat generalists. Generalist species may be more adapted to the reduced food availability and increased predatory pressures associated with reduced habitat complexity. Although similar patterns were observed at all sites, inter-site differences in shrimp abundance were observed. This indicates that although the present study demonstrates the importance of small-scale changes in seagrass habitat complexity to faunal assemblages, other factors related to larger spatial-scales are also important.

Indo-Pacific mangrove swamps and seagrass beds are commonly located in close proximity to each other, often creating complex ecosystems linked by biological and physical processes. Although they are thought to provide important nursery habitats for fish, only limited information exists about their usage by fish outside of estuaries. The present study investigated fish assemblages in non-estuarine intertidal habitats where mangroves and seagrass overlap (the mangrove–seagrass continuum). Three habitats (mangrove, mangrove edge, seagrass) were sampled at 4 sites of the Wakatobi Marine National Park, Indonesia, using underwater visual census. Ninety-one species of fish were observed at a mean density of 130.1 ± 37.2 ind. 1000 m–2. Predatory fish (fish that feed on invertebrates and/or fish) were the most dominant feeding groups in the mangroves, whilst omnivores dominated on the mangrove edge and in the seagrass. Although the habitats along the mangrove–seagrass continuum were observed to be important for many fish, only 22 of the 942 coral reef species known within the area utilised mangroves as nursery habitat and only 15 utilised seagrass. Despite finding evidence that nursery grounds in mangroves and seagrass may not directly support high coral reef fish diversity, many of the coral reef nursery species found in this study are likely to be key herbivores or apex predators as adult fish on local coral reefs, and thus highly important to local fisheries. Although mangroves are not permanently inundated by the tide, this study highlights their importance as fish habitats, which at high tide support a greater abundance of fish than seagrass beds. In the light of the high rate of destruction of these habitats, their role in supporting fish assemblages requires consideration in marine resource management programs.

Given the potential for adverse effects of ocean dredging on marine organisms, particularly benthic primary producer communities, the management and monitoring of those activities which cause elevated turbidity and sediment loading is critical. In practice, however, this has proven challenging as the development of water quality threshold values, upon which management responses are based, are subject to a large number of physical and biological parameters that are spatially and temporally specific. As a consequence, monitoring programs to date have taken a wide range of different approaches, most focusing on measures of turbidity reported as nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). This paper presents a potential approach in the determination of water quality thresholds which utilises data gathered through the long-term deployment of in situ water instruments, but suggests a focus on photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) rather than NTU as it is more relevant biologically and inclusive of other site conditions. A simple mathematical approach to data interpretation is also presented which facilitates threshold value development, not individual values of concentrations over specific intervals, but as an equation which may be utilized in numerical modelling.

In the present study we investigated inter-annual coral disease dynamics, in situdisease progression rates, and disease associated coral tissue mortality in the Wakatobi Marine National Park (WMNP) situated in the coral triangle in South-East Sulawesi, Indonesia. In 2005, only 2 known syndromes were recorded within the sampling area transect surveys: white syndrome (WS; 0.42% prevalence) and growth anomalies (GA; 0.15% prevalence), whilst 4 diseases were recorded in 2007: WS (0.19%), Poritesulcerative white spot disease (PUWS; 0.08%), GA (0.05%) and black band disease (BBD; 0.02%). Total disease prevalence decreased from 0.57% in 2005 to 0.33% in 2007. In addition to prevalence surveys, in situprogression rates of 4 diseases were investigated in 2007: BBD on Pachyseris foliosa, P. rugosaand Diploastrea heliopora, WS on Acropora clathrata, and brown band (BrB) and skeletal eroding band (SEB)diseases on Acropora pulchra. BrB and WS had the high- est progression rates, 1.2 ±0.36 and 1.1 ±0.07 cm d–1, respectively, indicating that diseases may have a significant impact on local Acroporapopulations. BBD had the lowest progression rate (0.39 ± 0.14cm d–1). WS caused the most severe recorded total tissue mortality: 53923 cm2 over a period of 36 d. Sedimentation and coral cover were studied and a highly significant drop in coral cover was observed. This study provides the first documentation of spatio-temporal coral disease dynamics from Indonesia. Despite low total disease prevalence, progression rates comparable to the ones observed in the Caribbean and Australia indicate that diseases may threaten the reef framework in some loca- tions and add to the degradation of coral reefs in a region already at high risk from anthropogenic impacts.

The ecological consequences of coral mining can be severe, with immediate reduction in reef-associated biodiversity and longer term implications for linked habitats such as mangrove forests and seagrass meadows. However, research into the effects of coral mining must take into account other environmental processes which may affect reef communities and the socio-economic context within which coral mining takes place if appropriate and proportionate management responses are to be identified. This article builds upon recently published research detailing the adverse effects of coral mining in Indonesia to illustrate the significance of these points. We use the previous paper to demonstrate that accurate identification of the ecological impacts of coral mining requires the use of appropriate control sites and recognizing natural stresses which may account for short-term variability in ecological parameters. We also underline the need to appreciate that government institutions can directly or indirectly facilitate coral mining, whilst proposed alternative income-generating activities intended to reduce coral mining should be tailored to the local economic, cultural and environmental context if they are to gain community support. This demonstrates the value of an integrated approach to analyzing marine resource usage which combines information from the natural and social sciences to address environmental problems such as coral mining.

Seagrass meadows are an ecologically and economically important resource throughout the Indo-Pacific bio-region, but ecological understanding of their faunal assemblages remains largely lacking, with faunal research mostly focussed upon studies of fish. The present study investigated the short-term temporal dynamics of caridean shrimp in relation to diel, tidal and lunar cycles. Such assemblages are important given their link between primary production and higher trophic levels such as fish. Caridean shrimp were found to be at maximal abundance and diversity (Hill’s N2) at night and during the waxing moon, increasing by a factor of 4 at night, with assemblage structure significantly influenced by both these factors. Although subtle changes in daily tidal height had little effect upon caridean assemblages, it is thought that the lunar changes that consequentially affect tides (spring to neaps) were key influences upon why caridean shrimp are in greater abundance during the waxing moon. Discussed is the potential for caridean shrimp to undertake inter-habitat migrations in relation to these environmental cycles.

Age dependent habitat usage of the abundant Indo-Pacific Thumbprint Emporer Lethrinus harak was assessed using field visual observations throughout the mangrove, seagrass, coral reef continuum. Juveniles were most abundant within seagrass habitats, whilst large adults only utilised the reef environment, indicating a movement towards the reef with increasing age. No evidence was found to suggest L. harak spends a specific section of its life-cycle within mangrove however it remains an important habitat, presumably for tidally dependent feeding.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Port of Abbot Point, approximately 25km north of Bowen, forms part of the State Government's infrastructure development plan for the Northern Economic Triangle. To complement a planned industrial precinct at Abbot Point, the Ports Corporation of Queensland Limited (PCQ) is investigating options to expand the current port and develop a Multi Cargo Facility (MCF).

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Seagrass habitats are valuable fisheries resources that show measurable responses to changes in water quality. These attributes make seagrass meadows ideal candidates for monitoring the long term health of marine environments.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Seagrass habitats are valuable fisheries resources that provide critical ecological functions within the coastal zone. The wide distribution of seagrasses in Queensland and their capacity to show measurable, short-term responses to changes in water quality, make them ideal candidates for monitoring the health of marine and coastal environments.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report details the results of seagrass baseline assessments, quarterly seagrass monitoring, and experimental research on seagrass resilience and productivity conducted between 2008 and 2010 at the Port of Abbot Point, North Queensland.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report details the findings of the 2009 annual seagrass monitoring survey for Port Curtis and Rodds Bay together with a reassessment of the whole of port baseline survey previously conducted in 2002. This report integrates 2009 survey data with previous long term monitoring assessments conducted since 2002. The 2009 survey included assessments of intertidal, shallow subtidal and deepwater meadows that measured seagrass meadow area, biomass and species composition.