Dramatic shifts in intellectual property in recent years have created an intense debate over thei... more Dramatic shifts in intellectual property in recent years have created an intense debate over their potential impact on research and development. While some commentators believe that game-changing legal decisions will only carry limited impact on research and developments, others have argued that such legal shifts may increase the chilling effect of uncertainty on research. This Article adds to this debate by providing empirical evidence of a ripple effect of intellectual property policy changes. The Article focuses on stem cell research as a case study. This is a highly promising, yet controversial line of research, embedding ethical, legal, and financial dilemmas, leading to frequent policy changes and legal uncertainty. The Article tracks changes in U.S. and European policies pertaining to patent rights and public funding and examines their impact on research and development. We report the findings of a comprehensive empirical study of stem cell patent applications filed between 1...
תקציר בעברית: כיצד שינויים משפטיים הנוגעים למחקר ופיתוח (מו"פ) משפיעים על פעילות המו"פ?... more תקציר בעברית: כיצד שינויים משפטיים הנוגעים למחקר ופיתוח (מו"פ) משפיעים על פעילות המו"פ? סוגיה זו ניצבת בשנים האחרונות במוקד סדר היום של מעצבי מדיניות מו"פ ברחבי העולם. נתונים בדבר היקף פעילות מו"פ בתחומי מחקר שונים מאפשרים לבחון לאורך זמן את הקשר בין שינויי מדיניות הנוגעת למו"פ לבין פעילות המו"פ בפועל. בחינת קשר כאמור עשויה לשפוך אור על השפעותיהם של אמצעי מדיניות שונים ולסייע בעיצובם.המאמר מנתח את המחקר בתאי גזע בישראל כמקרה מבחן. מחקר בתאי גזע מצוי כיום בחזית המחקר הביוטכנולוגי ומאפשר בין היתר פיתוח טיפולים רפואיים מצילי חיים. עם זאת תחום מחקר זה שנוי במחלוקת מוסרית ודתית ומעורר שאלות יסוד בדבר מועד ראשית החיים, כבוד האדם וגבולותיה האתיים של העשייה המדעית. המחלוקת האתית העמוקה משתקפת במגוון הרחב של הסדרים משפטיים הנוגעים למחקר בתאי גזע במדינות שונות ברחבי העולם וכן בשינויי המדיניות התכופים שהתחוללו בתחום זה. המאמר מנתח את פעילות המו"פ בישראל לאור שינויי מדיניות אלה תוך התמקדות בשני סוגי הסדרים: סוג אחד של הסדרים נועד להשפיע על ההשקעה הפרטית במו"פ, באמצעות רישום פטנט, וסוג שני נוגע להסדרי המימון הציבורי למו"פ. המאמר סוקר את השינויים שהתחוללו בהסדרים אלה בארצות הברית, באירופה ובישראל ובוחן באיזו מידה ניתן להצביע על קשר בין שינויי המדיניות לבין תפוקות המו"פ של חוקרים ישראלים בתחום תאי הגזע.תפוקות המו"פ בתאי גזע נמדדו באמצעות מספר הבקשות לרישום פטנט על תאי גזע שהגישו חוקרים ישראלים. מניתוח הנתונים עולה כי למן שנת 2005 חלה ירידה ניכרת ומתמשכת בהגשת בקשות לרישום פטנט של גופים ישראלים בתחום תאי גזע. מגמה זו החלה לאחר החלטת משרד הפטנטים האירופי (European Patent Office (EPO)) משנת 2004, אשר קבעה כי תוצרי מחקר בתאי גזע עובריים אינם כשירים לרישום כפטנט בכל מקרה שבו שימשו תהליכים המשמידים את הביצית המופרית. החלטה זו אושרה בערכאת הערעור העליונה של ה-EPO בשנת 2008.מהנתונים עולה כי לאחר שהוטלו מגבלות על רישום פטנט על תאי גזע עובריים באיחוד האירופי, נרשמה האטה בהגשת הבקשות לרישום פטנט על תאי גזע מכל הסוגים, בכל המדינות והמסלולים שנבדקו. ממצאים אלה מעניינים במיוחד הואיל והחלטת ה-EPO נוגעת לתאי גזע עובריים בלבד, ואילו השלכותיה ניכרות בכלל הבקשות לרישום פטנט על המצאות בתאי גזע מסוגים שונים. בנוסף, אף שמדובר בהחלטה מקומית שתחולתה באיחוד האירופי בלבד, השלכותיה על רישום פטנטים חרגו מחוץ לאירופה ולמדינות החברות, והן מורגשות בפעילות המו"פ גם בישראל. ממצא מעניין נוסף הוא שלא נרשמה האטה דומה בפעילות המחקר האקדמית, כפי שניתן ללמוד מהעלייה במספר הפרסומים המדעיים בתחום זה. לעומת זאת לא נמצא קשר בין השינויים שהתחוללו במדיניות המימון הציבורי למחקר בתאי גזע בארצות הברית לבין שיעור הגשת בקשות לרישום פטנט על ידי חוקרים ישראלים.ממצאים אלה מעידים שכללים משפטיים שנועדו לעודד מו"פ בתחום תאי גזע באמצעות רישום פטנט עשויים להשפיע על פעילות מו"פ המבוססת על המגזר הפרטי. מו"פ במגזר הפרטי מחייב השקעה כספית ניכרת על יסוד ההנחה שההשקעה תוחזר באמצעות רישום פטנטים ומסחור האהמצאה. לעומת זאת מחקר אקדמי אינו תלוי באותו האופן בגיוס השקעה פרטית למו"פ, ולפיכך צפוי להיות רגיש פחות לשינויי מדיניות בכשירות לרישום פטנט. זאת ועוד, ההשקעה הפרטית בפעילות המו"פ, המבוססת בעיקר על הגנת הפטנט, עשויה להגיב תגובה דרמטית לשינויים בכשירות לרישום פטנט גם כאשר השינוי איננו חל ישירות על ההמצאות מושא המחקר. הדבר עשוי לנבוע מחוסר הוודאות המשפטי המעלה את רמת הסיכון הכרוך בהשקעה. הקשר שנמצא בין שינויים במדיניות המשפטית ובין תפוקות המו"פ מחייב משנה זהירות בנקיטת שינויים משפטיים דרמטיים בתחומים הנוגעים לחדשנות ומדיניות מו"פ. טלטלות מסוג זה יוצרות חוסר ודאות משפטית ועשויות להשפיע השפעה נרחבת לרעה על היקף ההשקעה הפרטית במו"פ וכפועל יוצא גם על היקף פעילות המחקר והפיתוח בתחומים שמדיניות המו"פ מבקשת לעודד.English abstract: The question how do legal and policy decisions affect research and development (R&D) activity has been widely debated in recent years. An empirical analysis of patent applications provides a tool to understand the relationship between legal decisions pertaining to R&D and actual R&D activity. Understanding the relationship between the two may shed light on the effects of legal policy and help shape future policies. This article focuses on stem cell research in Israel as a case study. This is a highly promising yet controversial line of research, which raises ethical, legal, and financial dilemmas leading to frequent policy changes and legal uncertainty. The article examines changes in stem cell R&D activity through the analysis of Israeli stem cell patent applications, while tracking changes in Israeli, European and American stem cell policies pertaining to patent rights and public funding.We report the findings of a comprehensive empirical study of Israeli stem cell patent applications filed between 1990-2013 in Israel, in the U.S., in Europe and through the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT). Our findings indicate that following a 2004 European decision, holding that human embryonic stem cells are not patentable in the European Patent Office (EPO), there has been a decline in patent filing activity in the entire stem cell field, extending to non-embryonic stem cell inventions as well. Moreover, even though this is a local decision that applies only to patent filing in the EPO, it had a significantly wider effect influencing Israeli R&D activity. Interestingly, the…
Copyright enforcement was one of the early challenges to the rule of law on the internet and has ... more Copyright enforcement was one of the early challenges to the rule of law on the internet and has shaped its development since the early 1990s. The Notice and Takedown (N&TD) regime, enacted in the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, offered online intermediaries immunity from liability in exchange for removing allegedly infringing materials upon receiving notice from rights holders. The unequivocal power of rights holders to request removal and the strong incentives for online intermediaries to remove content upon receiving a removal request have turned the N&TD regime into a robust clean-up mechanism for removing any unwarranted content. The N&TD procedure applies to private facilities, makes use of proprietary software, and is administered by private companies. This enforcement procedure is nontransparent and lacks sufficient legal or public oversight. Unlike copyright enforcement in court, where decisions are made public, we know very little about the actual implementation of the N...
תקציר בעברית: הסדרת הפרטיות היא סוגיה מורכבת, המעוררת שאלות רבות בכמה ממדים. בצד שאלות המהות, שאל... more תקציר בעברית: הסדרת הפרטיות היא סוגיה מורכבת, המעוררת שאלות רבות בכמה ממדים. בצד שאלות המהות, שאלות רבות נוגעות לדרכי ההסדרה, האסדרה והאכיפה של הזכות לפרטיות והגנת המידע. מאמר זה ידגים את השאלות והקשיים העולים מסוגיית האסטרטגיה של הסדרת הפרטיות בישראל, בהקשר חדשני הנוגע להעברת מידע פרטי מגופים ציבוריים, תוך שימוש בהתממה (anonymization או de-identification). ההתממה היא תהליך הכולל רכיבים טכנולוגיים ומנהליים שמטרתו להפוך מידע אישי מוגן לכזה המנותק מכל מאפיין שמזהה את מושאו. עם זאת, בעידן נתוני העתק, מתעורר חשש מפני סכנות של "תקיפת" ההתממה וביצוע של זיהוי חוזר (re-identification) וכתוצאה מכך חשיפה אפשרית של מידע אישי בידי מי שלא אמור להיחשף אליו או להחזיק בו. מדינות רבות בעולם כבר נתנו דעתן לדרך הראויה לביצוע התממה – הן ברמת התוכן והן ברמת האסטרטגיה. ואולם, הליך דומה של עיצוב מדיניות התממה טרם נערך או אפילו נדון בישראל. במאמר נטען ונראה כי בישראל מתפתחים במקביל, במנותק וככל הנראה ללא כל יד מכוונת, מספר משטרים נפרדים הנוגעים להתממה. דוגמאות מרכזיות למשטרים אלו הינם אלה המופעלי...
This chapter aims to demonstrate the implementation of the content analysis approach in the legal... more This chapter aims to demonstrate the implementation of the content analysis approach in the legal discipline; it argues that this approach is suitable for use by legal scholars, enabling analysis of various legal texts to uncover their connection and to learn about their meaning. Moreover, systematic analysing of legal texts yields insights that fine-tune the various challenges policy-makers and decision-makers are facing. This issue is particularly important in intellectual property (IP) research—a rapidly developing and dynamic legal field that calls for an up-to-date legal response to issues emanating from speedy technological developments. Specifically, the chapter sets forth a content analysis approach to analysing the judicial process in the context of online copyright enforcement cases. I argue that this approach facilitates advanced analysis of the legal process in a way that will help us understand and follow the development of the legal norm and contribute to legal certain...
Copyright enforcement was one of the early challenges to the rule of law on the internet and has ... more Copyright enforcement was one of the early challenges to the rule of law on the internet and has shaped its development since the early 1990s. The Notice and Takedown (N&TD) regime, enacted in the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, offered online intermediaries immunity from liability in exchange for removing allegedly infringing materials upon receiving notice from rights holders. The unequivocal power of rights holders to request removal and the strong incentives for online intermediaries to remove content upon receiving a removal request have turned the N&TD regime into a robust clean-up mechanism for removing any unwarranted content. The N&TD procedure applies to private facilities, makes use of proprietary software, and is administered by private companies. This enforcement procedure is nontransparent and lacks sufficient legal or public oversight. Unlike copyright enforcement in court, where decisions are made public, we know very little about the actual implementation of the N&TD regime: Which players make use of the system? Who is targeted? What materials get removed and why? How effective is the removal of infringing materials, and does it comply with copyright law? This Article offers empirical evidence on the implementation of the N&TD regime based on the systematic coding and analysis of a large-scale data-set of removal requests sent to Google Search. The findings shed light on the major changes that have taken place in copyright enforcement following the transition to the online arena over the past decade. Analysis of the data reveals that the N&TD procedure has been extensively used to remove noninfringing materials, and most removal requests pertained to allegedly inaccurate, defamatory, or misleading content. These findings raise serious concerns that the N&TD procedure is becoming fertile ground for misuse. Moreover, online enforcement is dominated by multinational companies, which prefer to target global intermediaries rather than attempt to remove materials hosted by local platforms. This may lead to underenforcement of copyright online, as the exclusive focus on removal of links to allegedly infringing materials may limit access to these materials, yet fail to actually remove these same materials. The local hosting platforms which facilitates access to repeat infringments, are widely known within the relevant community of users. This calls into question the effectiveness of this enforcement strategy. At the same time, however, the data demonstrates instances of overenforcement, where some materials have been removed on questionable grounds. Thus, the findings raise concerns over the implications of the N&TD regime for access to knowledge and freedom of speech. Overall, the study shows that in the absence of sufficient oversight, the N&TD regime is vulnerable to misuse, carrying consequences to copyright goals, access to justice, and due process. By uncovering the invisible dynamics at work in online copyright enforcement, this Article may contribute to identifying the challenges facing policymakers in shaping online enforcement procedures and developing the appropriate measures to address them.
Journal of Technology Law & Policy (forthcoming), 2015
Dramatic shifts in intellectual property in recent years have created an intense debate over
the... more Dramatic shifts in intellectual property in recent years have created an intense debate over
their potential impact on research and development. While some commentators believe that
game-changing legal decisions will only carry limited impact on research and developments,
others have argued that such legal shifts may increase the chilling effect of uncertainty on
research. This Article adds to this debate by providing empirical evidence of a ripple effect of
intellectual property policy changes.
The Article focuses on stem cell research as a case study. This is a highly promising, yet
controversial line of research, embedding ethical, legal, and financial dilemmas, leading to
frequent policy changes and legal uncertainty. The Article tracks changes in U.S. and
European policies pertaining to patent rights and public funding and examines their impact on
research and development.
We report the findings of a comprehensive empirical study of stem cell patent applications
filed between 1990-2013 in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, the European Patent
Office, and through the Patent Cooperation Treaty. Our findings indicate that a 2004
European decision, holding that human embryonic stem cells are not patentable in the
European Patent Office, had a broad effect on patent filing in the entire stem cell field,
extending to non-embryonic stem cell inventions. At the same time, changes in American
stem cell federal funding policies did not influence stem cell research as dramatically.
These findings are particularly striking as they shows that game-changing decisions
pertaining to intellectual property may cause an impact that is broader and wider than their
intended scope. The findings indicate that local patent regulation may have a global effect on
patent activity extending to research and development in other countries, and an extensive
effect, exceeding its intended scope. The findings also suggest that legal uncertainty may
cause a chilling effect on private investments in research and development, and that
intellectual property policy has a differentiated impact, affecting the private and the public
sectors differently. Collectively, we call these outcomes the ripple effect of IP policy. The
ripple effect of IP policy calls for caution among judges and policymakers in making sharp
policy shifts, since such shifts may involve some unintended consequences for R&D.
Dramatic shifts in intellectual property in recent years have created an intense debate over thei... more Dramatic shifts in intellectual property in recent years have created an intense debate over their potential impact on research and development. While some commentators believe that game-changing legal decisions will only carry limited impact on research and developments, others have argued that such legal shifts may increase the chilling effect of uncertainty on research. This Article adds to this debate by providing empirical evidence of a ripple effect of intellectual property policy changes.
The Article focuses on stem cell research as a case study. This is a highly promising, yet controversial line of research, embedding ethical, legal, and financial dilemmas, leading to frequent policy changes and legal uncertainty. The Article tracks changes in U.S. and European policies pertaining to patent rights and public funding and examines their impact on research and development.
We report the findings of a comprehensive empirical study of stem cell patent applications filed between 1990-2013 in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, the European Patent Office, and through the Patent Cooperation Treaty. Our findings indicate that a 2004 European decision, holding that human embryonic stem cells are not patentable in the European Patent Office, had a broad effect on patent filing in the entire stem cell field, extending to non-embryonic stem cell inventions. At the same time, changes in American stem cell federal funding policies did not influence stem cell research as dramatically.
These findings are particularly striking as they shows that game-changing decisions pertaining to intellectual property may cause an impact that is broader and wider than their intended scope. The findings indicate that local patent regulation may have a global effect on patent activity extending to research and development in other countries, and an extensive effect, exceeding its intended scope. The findings also suggest that legal uncertainty may cause a chilling effect on private investments in research and development, and that intellectual property policy has a differentiated impact, affecting the private and the public sectors differently. Collectively, we call these outcomes the ripple effect of IP policy. The ripple effect of IP policy calls for caution among judges and policymakers in making sharp policy shifts, since such shifts may involve some unintended consequences for R&D.
Dramatic shifts in intellectual property in recent years have created an intense debate over thei... more Dramatic shifts in intellectual property in recent years have created an intense debate over their potential impact on research and development. While some commentators believe that game-changing legal decisions will only carry limited impact on research and developments, others have argued that such legal shifts may increase the chilling effect of uncertainty on research. This Article adds to this debate by providing empirical evidence of a ripple effect of intellectual property policy changes. The Article focuses on stem cell research as a case study. This is a highly promising, yet controversial line of research, embedding ethical, legal, and financial dilemmas, leading to frequent policy changes and legal uncertainty. The Article tracks changes in U.S. and European policies pertaining to patent rights and public funding and examines their impact on research and development. We report the findings of a comprehensive empirical study of stem cell patent applications filed between 1...
תקציר בעברית: כיצד שינויים משפטיים הנוגעים למחקר ופיתוח (מו"פ) משפיעים על פעילות המו"פ?... more תקציר בעברית: כיצד שינויים משפטיים הנוגעים למחקר ופיתוח (מו"פ) משפיעים על פעילות המו"פ? סוגיה זו ניצבת בשנים האחרונות במוקד סדר היום של מעצבי מדיניות מו"פ ברחבי העולם. נתונים בדבר היקף פעילות מו"פ בתחומי מחקר שונים מאפשרים לבחון לאורך זמן את הקשר בין שינויי מדיניות הנוגעת למו"פ לבין פעילות המו"פ בפועל. בחינת קשר כאמור עשויה לשפוך אור על השפעותיהם של אמצעי מדיניות שונים ולסייע בעיצובם.המאמר מנתח את המחקר בתאי גזע בישראל כמקרה מבחן. מחקר בתאי גזע מצוי כיום בחזית המחקר הביוטכנולוגי ומאפשר בין היתר פיתוח טיפולים רפואיים מצילי חיים. עם זאת תחום מחקר זה שנוי במחלוקת מוסרית ודתית ומעורר שאלות יסוד בדבר מועד ראשית החיים, כבוד האדם וגבולותיה האתיים של העשייה המדעית. המחלוקת האתית העמוקה משתקפת במגוון הרחב של הסדרים משפטיים הנוגעים למחקר בתאי גזע במדינות שונות ברחבי העולם וכן בשינויי המדיניות התכופים שהתחוללו בתחום זה. המאמר מנתח את פעילות המו"פ בישראל לאור שינויי מדיניות אלה תוך התמקדות בשני סוגי הסדרים: סוג אחד של הסדרים נועד להשפיע על ההשקעה הפרטית במו"פ, באמצעות רישום פטנט, וסוג שני נוגע להסדרי המימון הציבורי למו"פ. המאמר סוקר את השינויים שהתחוללו בהסדרים אלה בארצות הברית, באירופה ובישראל ובוחן באיזו מידה ניתן להצביע על קשר בין שינויי המדיניות לבין תפוקות המו"פ של חוקרים ישראלים בתחום תאי הגזע.תפוקות המו"פ בתאי גזע נמדדו באמצעות מספר הבקשות לרישום פטנט על תאי גזע שהגישו חוקרים ישראלים. מניתוח הנתונים עולה כי למן שנת 2005 חלה ירידה ניכרת ומתמשכת בהגשת בקשות לרישום פטנט של גופים ישראלים בתחום תאי גזע. מגמה זו החלה לאחר החלטת משרד הפטנטים האירופי (European Patent Office (EPO)) משנת 2004, אשר קבעה כי תוצרי מחקר בתאי גזע עובריים אינם כשירים לרישום כפטנט בכל מקרה שבו שימשו תהליכים המשמידים את הביצית המופרית. החלטה זו אושרה בערכאת הערעור העליונה של ה-EPO בשנת 2008.מהנתונים עולה כי לאחר שהוטלו מגבלות על רישום פטנט על תאי גזע עובריים באיחוד האירופי, נרשמה האטה בהגשת הבקשות לרישום פטנט על תאי גזע מכל הסוגים, בכל המדינות והמסלולים שנבדקו. ממצאים אלה מעניינים במיוחד הואיל והחלטת ה-EPO נוגעת לתאי גזע עובריים בלבד, ואילו השלכותיה ניכרות בכלל הבקשות לרישום פטנט על המצאות בתאי גזע מסוגים שונים. בנוסף, אף שמדובר בהחלטה מקומית שתחולתה באיחוד האירופי בלבד, השלכותיה על רישום פטנטים חרגו מחוץ לאירופה ולמדינות החברות, והן מורגשות בפעילות המו"פ גם בישראל. ממצא מעניין נוסף הוא שלא נרשמה האטה דומה בפעילות המחקר האקדמית, כפי שניתן ללמוד מהעלייה במספר הפרסומים המדעיים בתחום זה. לעומת זאת לא נמצא קשר בין השינויים שהתחוללו במדיניות המימון הציבורי למחקר בתאי גזע בארצות הברית לבין שיעור הגשת בקשות לרישום פטנט על ידי חוקרים ישראלים.ממצאים אלה מעידים שכללים משפטיים שנועדו לעודד מו"פ בתחום תאי גזע באמצעות רישום פטנט עשויים להשפיע על פעילות מו"פ המבוססת על המגזר הפרטי. מו"פ במגזר הפרטי מחייב השקעה כספית ניכרת על יסוד ההנחה שההשקעה תוחזר באמצעות רישום פטנטים ומסחור האהמצאה. לעומת זאת מחקר אקדמי אינו תלוי באותו האופן בגיוס השקעה פרטית למו"פ, ולפיכך צפוי להיות רגיש פחות לשינויי מדיניות בכשירות לרישום פטנט. זאת ועוד, ההשקעה הפרטית בפעילות המו"פ, המבוססת בעיקר על הגנת הפטנט, עשויה להגיב תגובה דרמטית לשינויים בכשירות לרישום פטנט גם כאשר השינוי איננו חל ישירות על ההמצאות מושא המחקר. הדבר עשוי לנבוע מחוסר הוודאות המשפטי המעלה את רמת הסיכון הכרוך בהשקעה. הקשר שנמצא בין שינויים במדיניות המשפטית ובין תפוקות המו"פ מחייב משנה זהירות בנקיטת שינויים משפטיים דרמטיים בתחומים הנוגעים לחדשנות ומדיניות מו"פ. טלטלות מסוג זה יוצרות חוסר ודאות משפטית ועשויות להשפיע השפעה נרחבת לרעה על היקף ההשקעה הפרטית במו"פ וכפועל יוצא גם על היקף פעילות המחקר והפיתוח בתחומים שמדיניות המו"פ מבקשת לעודד.English abstract: The question how do legal and policy decisions affect research and development (R&D) activity has been widely debated in recent years. An empirical analysis of patent applications provides a tool to understand the relationship between legal decisions pertaining to R&D and actual R&D activity. Understanding the relationship between the two may shed light on the effects of legal policy and help shape future policies. This article focuses on stem cell research in Israel as a case study. This is a highly promising yet controversial line of research, which raises ethical, legal, and financial dilemmas leading to frequent policy changes and legal uncertainty. The article examines changes in stem cell R&D activity through the analysis of Israeli stem cell patent applications, while tracking changes in Israeli, European and American stem cell policies pertaining to patent rights and public funding.We report the findings of a comprehensive empirical study of Israeli stem cell patent applications filed between 1990-2013 in Israel, in the U.S., in Europe and through the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT). Our findings indicate that following a 2004 European decision, holding that human embryonic stem cells are not patentable in the European Patent Office (EPO), there has been a decline in patent filing activity in the entire stem cell field, extending to non-embryonic stem cell inventions as well. Moreover, even though this is a local decision that applies only to patent filing in the EPO, it had a significantly wider effect influencing Israeli R&D activity. Interestingly, the…
Copyright enforcement was one of the early challenges to the rule of law on the internet and has ... more Copyright enforcement was one of the early challenges to the rule of law on the internet and has shaped its development since the early 1990s. The Notice and Takedown (N&TD) regime, enacted in the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, offered online intermediaries immunity from liability in exchange for removing allegedly infringing materials upon receiving notice from rights holders. The unequivocal power of rights holders to request removal and the strong incentives for online intermediaries to remove content upon receiving a removal request have turned the N&TD regime into a robust clean-up mechanism for removing any unwarranted content. The N&TD procedure applies to private facilities, makes use of proprietary software, and is administered by private companies. This enforcement procedure is nontransparent and lacks sufficient legal or public oversight. Unlike copyright enforcement in court, where decisions are made public, we know very little about the actual implementation of the N...
תקציר בעברית: הסדרת הפרטיות היא סוגיה מורכבת, המעוררת שאלות רבות בכמה ממדים. בצד שאלות המהות, שאל... more תקציר בעברית: הסדרת הפרטיות היא סוגיה מורכבת, המעוררת שאלות רבות בכמה ממדים. בצד שאלות המהות, שאלות רבות נוגעות לדרכי ההסדרה, האסדרה והאכיפה של הזכות לפרטיות והגנת המידע. מאמר זה ידגים את השאלות והקשיים העולים מסוגיית האסטרטגיה של הסדרת הפרטיות בישראל, בהקשר חדשני הנוגע להעברת מידע פרטי מגופים ציבוריים, תוך שימוש בהתממה (anonymization או de-identification). ההתממה היא תהליך הכולל רכיבים טכנולוגיים ומנהליים שמטרתו להפוך מידע אישי מוגן לכזה המנותק מכל מאפיין שמזהה את מושאו. עם זאת, בעידן נתוני העתק, מתעורר חשש מפני סכנות של "תקיפת" ההתממה וביצוע של זיהוי חוזר (re-identification) וכתוצאה מכך חשיפה אפשרית של מידע אישי בידי מי שלא אמור להיחשף אליו או להחזיק בו. מדינות רבות בעולם כבר נתנו דעתן לדרך הראויה לביצוע התממה – הן ברמת התוכן והן ברמת האסטרטגיה. ואולם, הליך דומה של עיצוב מדיניות התממה טרם נערך או אפילו נדון בישראל. במאמר נטען ונראה כי בישראל מתפתחים במקביל, במנותק וככל הנראה ללא כל יד מכוונת, מספר משטרים נפרדים הנוגעים להתממה. דוגמאות מרכזיות למשטרים אלו הינם אלה המופעלי...
This chapter aims to demonstrate the implementation of the content analysis approach in the legal... more This chapter aims to demonstrate the implementation of the content analysis approach in the legal discipline; it argues that this approach is suitable for use by legal scholars, enabling analysis of various legal texts to uncover their connection and to learn about their meaning. Moreover, systematic analysing of legal texts yields insights that fine-tune the various challenges policy-makers and decision-makers are facing. This issue is particularly important in intellectual property (IP) research—a rapidly developing and dynamic legal field that calls for an up-to-date legal response to issues emanating from speedy technological developments. Specifically, the chapter sets forth a content analysis approach to analysing the judicial process in the context of online copyright enforcement cases. I argue that this approach facilitates advanced analysis of the legal process in a way that will help us understand and follow the development of the legal norm and contribute to legal certain...
Copyright enforcement was one of the early challenges to the rule of law on the internet and has ... more Copyright enforcement was one of the early challenges to the rule of law on the internet and has shaped its development since the early 1990s. The Notice and Takedown (N&TD) regime, enacted in the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, offered online intermediaries immunity from liability in exchange for removing allegedly infringing materials upon receiving notice from rights holders. The unequivocal power of rights holders to request removal and the strong incentives for online intermediaries to remove content upon receiving a removal request have turned the N&TD regime into a robust clean-up mechanism for removing any unwarranted content. The N&TD procedure applies to private facilities, makes use of proprietary software, and is administered by private companies. This enforcement procedure is nontransparent and lacks sufficient legal or public oversight. Unlike copyright enforcement in court, where decisions are made public, we know very little about the actual implementation of the N&TD regime: Which players make use of the system? Who is targeted? What materials get removed and why? How effective is the removal of infringing materials, and does it comply with copyright law? This Article offers empirical evidence on the implementation of the N&TD regime based on the systematic coding and analysis of a large-scale data-set of removal requests sent to Google Search. The findings shed light on the major changes that have taken place in copyright enforcement following the transition to the online arena over the past decade. Analysis of the data reveals that the N&TD procedure has been extensively used to remove noninfringing materials, and most removal requests pertained to allegedly inaccurate, defamatory, or misleading content. These findings raise serious concerns that the N&TD procedure is becoming fertile ground for misuse. Moreover, online enforcement is dominated by multinational companies, which prefer to target global intermediaries rather than attempt to remove materials hosted by local platforms. This may lead to underenforcement of copyright online, as the exclusive focus on removal of links to allegedly infringing materials may limit access to these materials, yet fail to actually remove these same materials. The local hosting platforms which facilitates access to repeat infringments, are widely known within the relevant community of users. This calls into question the effectiveness of this enforcement strategy. At the same time, however, the data demonstrates instances of overenforcement, where some materials have been removed on questionable grounds. Thus, the findings raise concerns over the implications of the N&TD regime for access to knowledge and freedom of speech. Overall, the study shows that in the absence of sufficient oversight, the N&TD regime is vulnerable to misuse, carrying consequences to copyright goals, access to justice, and due process. By uncovering the invisible dynamics at work in online copyright enforcement, this Article may contribute to identifying the challenges facing policymakers in shaping online enforcement procedures and developing the appropriate measures to address them.
Journal of Technology Law & Policy (forthcoming), 2015
Dramatic shifts in intellectual property in recent years have created an intense debate over
the... more Dramatic shifts in intellectual property in recent years have created an intense debate over
their potential impact on research and development. While some commentators believe that
game-changing legal decisions will only carry limited impact on research and developments,
others have argued that such legal shifts may increase the chilling effect of uncertainty on
research. This Article adds to this debate by providing empirical evidence of a ripple effect of
intellectual property policy changes.
The Article focuses on stem cell research as a case study. This is a highly promising, yet
controversial line of research, embedding ethical, legal, and financial dilemmas, leading to
frequent policy changes and legal uncertainty. The Article tracks changes in U.S. and
European policies pertaining to patent rights and public funding and examines their impact on
research and development.
We report the findings of a comprehensive empirical study of stem cell patent applications
filed between 1990-2013 in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, the European Patent
Office, and through the Patent Cooperation Treaty. Our findings indicate that a 2004
European decision, holding that human embryonic stem cells are not patentable in the
European Patent Office, had a broad effect on patent filing in the entire stem cell field,
extending to non-embryonic stem cell inventions. At the same time, changes in American
stem cell federal funding policies did not influence stem cell research as dramatically.
These findings are particularly striking as they shows that game-changing decisions
pertaining to intellectual property may cause an impact that is broader and wider than their
intended scope. The findings indicate that local patent regulation may have a global effect on
patent activity extending to research and development in other countries, and an extensive
effect, exceeding its intended scope. The findings also suggest that legal uncertainty may
cause a chilling effect on private investments in research and development, and that
intellectual property policy has a differentiated impact, affecting the private and the public
sectors differently. Collectively, we call these outcomes the ripple effect of IP policy. The
ripple effect of IP policy calls for caution among judges and policymakers in making sharp
policy shifts, since such shifts may involve some unintended consequences for R&D.
Dramatic shifts in intellectual property in recent years have created an intense debate over thei... more Dramatic shifts in intellectual property in recent years have created an intense debate over their potential impact on research and development. While some commentators believe that game-changing legal decisions will only carry limited impact on research and developments, others have argued that such legal shifts may increase the chilling effect of uncertainty on research. This Article adds to this debate by providing empirical evidence of a ripple effect of intellectual property policy changes.
The Article focuses on stem cell research as a case study. This is a highly promising, yet controversial line of research, embedding ethical, legal, and financial dilemmas, leading to frequent policy changes and legal uncertainty. The Article tracks changes in U.S. and European policies pertaining to patent rights and public funding and examines their impact on research and development.
We report the findings of a comprehensive empirical study of stem cell patent applications filed between 1990-2013 in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, the European Patent Office, and through the Patent Cooperation Treaty. Our findings indicate that a 2004 European decision, holding that human embryonic stem cells are not patentable in the European Patent Office, had a broad effect on patent filing in the entire stem cell field, extending to non-embryonic stem cell inventions. At the same time, changes in American stem cell federal funding policies did not influence stem cell research as dramatically.
These findings are particularly striking as they shows that game-changing decisions pertaining to intellectual property may cause an impact that is broader and wider than their intended scope. The findings indicate that local patent regulation may have a global effect on patent activity extending to research and development in other countries, and an extensive effect, exceeding its intended scope. The findings also suggest that legal uncertainty may cause a chilling effect on private investments in research and development, and that intellectual property policy has a differentiated impact, affecting the private and the public sectors differently. Collectively, we call these outcomes the ripple effect of IP policy. The ripple effect of IP policy calls for caution among judges and policymakers in making sharp policy shifts, since such shifts may involve some unintended consequences for R&D.
Uploads
Papers
The N&TD procedure applies to private facilities, makes use of proprietary software, and is administered by private companies. This enforcement procedure is nontransparent and lacks sufficient legal or public oversight. Unlike copyright enforcement in court, where decisions are made public, we know very little about the actual implementation of the N&TD regime: Which players make use of the system? Who is targeted? What materials get removed and why? How effective is the removal of infringing materials, and does it comply with copyright law?
This Article offers empirical evidence on the implementation of the N&TD regime based on the systematic coding and analysis of a large-scale data-set of removal requests sent to Google Search.
The findings shed light on the major changes that have taken place in copyright enforcement following the transition to the online arena over the past decade. Analysis of the data reveals that the N&TD procedure has been extensively used to remove noninfringing materials, and most removal requests pertained to allegedly inaccurate, defamatory, or misleading content. These findings raise serious concerns that the N&TD procedure is becoming fertile ground for misuse. Moreover, online enforcement is dominated by multinational companies, which prefer to target global intermediaries rather than attempt to remove materials hosted by local platforms. This may lead to underenforcement of copyright online, as the exclusive focus on removal of links to allegedly infringing materials may limit access to these materials, yet fail to actually remove these same materials. The local hosting platforms which facilitates access to repeat infringments, are widely known within the relevant community of users. This calls into question the effectiveness of this enforcement strategy. At the same time, however, the data demonstrates instances of overenforcement, where some materials have been removed on questionable grounds. Thus, the findings raise concerns over the implications of the N&TD regime for access to knowledge and freedom of speech. Overall, the study shows that in the absence of sufficient oversight, the N&TD regime is vulnerable to misuse, carrying consequences to copyright goals, access to justice, and due process. By uncovering the invisible dynamics at work in online copyright enforcement, this Article may contribute to identifying the challenges facing policymakers in shaping online enforcement procedures and developing the appropriate measures to address them.
their potential impact on research and development. While some commentators believe that
game-changing legal decisions will only carry limited impact on research and developments,
others have argued that such legal shifts may increase the chilling effect of uncertainty on
research. This Article adds to this debate by providing empirical evidence of a ripple effect of
intellectual property policy changes.
The Article focuses on stem cell research as a case study. This is a highly promising, yet
controversial line of research, embedding ethical, legal, and financial dilemmas, leading to
frequent policy changes and legal uncertainty. The Article tracks changes in U.S. and
European policies pertaining to patent rights and public funding and examines their impact on
research and development.
We report the findings of a comprehensive empirical study of stem cell patent applications
filed between 1990-2013 in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, the European Patent
Office, and through the Patent Cooperation Treaty. Our findings indicate that a 2004
European decision, holding that human embryonic stem cells are not patentable in the
European Patent Office, had a broad effect on patent filing in the entire stem cell field,
extending to non-embryonic stem cell inventions. At the same time, changes in American
stem cell federal funding policies did not influence stem cell research as dramatically.
These findings are particularly striking as they shows that game-changing decisions
pertaining to intellectual property may cause an impact that is broader and wider than their
intended scope. The findings indicate that local patent regulation may have a global effect on
patent activity extending to research and development in other countries, and an extensive
effect, exceeding its intended scope. The findings also suggest that legal uncertainty may
cause a chilling effect on private investments in research and development, and that
intellectual property policy has a differentiated impact, affecting the private and the public
sectors differently. Collectively, we call these outcomes the ripple effect of IP policy. The
ripple effect of IP policy calls for caution among judges and policymakers in making sharp
policy shifts, since such shifts may involve some unintended consequences for R&D.
The Article focuses on stem cell research as a case study. This is a highly promising, yet controversial line of research, embedding ethical, legal, and financial dilemmas, leading to frequent policy changes and legal uncertainty. The Article tracks changes in U.S. and European policies pertaining to patent rights and public funding and examines their impact on research and development.
We report the findings of a comprehensive empirical study of stem cell patent applications filed between 1990-2013 in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, the European Patent Office, and through the Patent Cooperation Treaty. Our findings indicate that a 2004 European decision, holding that human embryonic stem cells are not patentable in the European Patent Office, had a broad effect on patent filing in the entire stem cell field, extending to non-embryonic stem cell inventions. At the same time, changes in American stem cell federal funding policies did not influence stem cell research as dramatically.
These findings are particularly striking as they shows that game-changing decisions pertaining to intellectual property may cause an impact that is broader and wider than their intended scope. The findings indicate that local patent regulation may have a global effect on patent activity extending to research and development in other countries, and an extensive effect, exceeding its intended scope. The findings also suggest that legal uncertainty may cause a chilling effect on private investments in research and development, and that intellectual property policy has a differentiated impact, affecting the private and the public sectors differently. Collectively, we call these outcomes the ripple effect of IP policy. The ripple effect of IP policy calls for caution among judges and policymakers in making sharp policy shifts, since such shifts may involve some unintended consequences for R&D.
The N&TD procedure applies to private facilities, makes use of proprietary software, and is administered by private companies. This enforcement procedure is nontransparent and lacks sufficient legal or public oversight. Unlike copyright enforcement in court, where decisions are made public, we know very little about the actual implementation of the N&TD regime: Which players make use of the system? Who is targeted? What materials get removed and why? How effective is the removal of infringing materials, and does it comply with copyright law?
This Article offers empirical evidence on the implementation of the N&TD regime based on the systematic coding and analysis of a large-scale data-set of removal requests sent to Google Search.
The findings shed light on the major changes that have taken place in copyright enforcement following the transition to the online arena over the past decade. Analysis of the data reveals that the N&TD procedure has been extensively used to remove noninfringing materials, and most removal requests pertained to allegedly inaccurate, defamatory, or misleading content. These findings raise serious concerns that the N&TD procedure is becoming fertile ground for misuse. Moreover, online enforcement is dominated by multinational companies, which prefer to target global intermediaries rather than attempt to remove materials hosted by local platforms. This may lead to underenforcement of copyright online, as the exclusive focus on removal of links to allegedly infringing materials may limit access to these materials, yet fail to actually remove these same materials. The local hosting platforms which facilitates access to repeat infringments, are widely known within the relevant community of users. This calls into question the effectiveness of this enforcement strategy. At the same time, however, the data demonstrates instances of overenforcement, where some materials have been removed on questionable grounds. Thus, the findings raise concerns over the implications of the N&TD regime for access to knowledge and freedom of speech. Overall, the study shows that in the absence of sufficient oversight, the N&TD regime is vulnerable to misuse, carrying consequences to copyright goals, access to justice, and due process. By uncovering the invisible dynamics at work in online copyright enforcement, this Article may contribute to identifying the challenges facing policymakers in shaping online enforcement procedures and developing the appropriate measures to address them.
their potential impact on research and development. While some commentators believe that
game-changing legal decisions will only carry limited impact on research and developments,
others have argued that such legal shifts may increase the chilling effect of uncertainty on
research. This Article adds to this debate by providing empirical evidence of a ripple effect of
intellectual property policy changes.
The Article focuses on stem cell research as a case study. This is a highly promising, yet
controversial line of research, embedding ethical, legal, and financial dilemmas, leading to
frequent policy changes and legal uncertainty. The Article tracks changes in U.S. and
European policies pertaining to patent rights and public funding and examines their impact on
research and development.
We report the findings of a comprehensive empirical study of stem cell patent applications
filed between 1990-2013 in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, the European Patent
Office, and through the Patent Cooperation Treaty. Our findings indicate that a 2004
European decision, holding that human embryonic stem cells are not patentable in the
European Patent Office, had a broad effect on patent filing in the entire stem cell field,
extending to non-embryonic stem cell inventions. At the same time, changes in American
stem cell federal funding policies did not influence stem cell research as dramatically.
These findings are particularly striking as they shows that game-changing decisions
pertaining to intellectual property may cause an impact that is broader and wider than their
intended scope. The findings indicate that local patent regulation may have a global effect on
patent activity extending to research and development in other countries, and an extensive
effect, exceeding its intended scope. The findings also suggest that legal uncertainty may
cause a chilling effect on private investments in research and development, and that
intellectual property policy has a differentiated impact, affecting the private and the public
sectors differently. Collectively, we call these outcomes the ripple effect of IP policy. The
ripple effect of IP policy calls for caution among judges and policymakers in making sharp
policy shifts, since such shifts may involve some unintended consequences for R&D.
The Article focuses on stem cell research as a case study. This is a highly promising, yet controversial line of research, embedding ethical, legal, and financial dilemmas, leading to frequent policy changes and legal uncertainty. The Article tracks changes in U.S. and European policies pertaining to patent rights and public funding and examines their impact on research and development.
We report the findings of a comprehensive empirical study of stem cell patent applications filed between 1990-2013 in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, the European Patent Office, and through the Patent Cooperation Treaty. Our findings indicate that a 2004 European decision, holding that human embryonic stem cells are not patentable in the European Patent Office, had a broad effect on patent filing in the entire stem cell field, extending to non-embryonic stem cell inventions. At the same time, changes in American stem cell federal funding policies did not influence stem cell research as dramatically.
These findings are particularly striking as they shows that game-changing decisions pertaining to intellectual property may cause an impact that is broader and wider than their intended scope. The findings indicate that local patent regulation may have a global effect on patent activity extending to research and development in other countries, and an extensive effect, exceeding its intended scope. The findings also suggest that legal uncertainty may cause a chilling effect on private investments in research and development, and that intellectual property policy has a differentiated impact, affecting the private and the public sectors differently. Collectively, we call these outcomes the ripple effect of IP policy. The ripple effect of IP policy calls for caution among judges and policymakers in making sharp policy shifts, since such shifts may involve some unintended consequences for R&D.