DE10258874A1 - Model-based combustion engine control method in which, in an energy balance model, the total energy input corresponding to the fuel air mixture is matched to heat output and converted heat energy - Google Patents
Model-based combustion engine control method in which, in an energy balance model, the total energy input corresponding to the fuel air mixture is matched to heat output and converted heat energy Download PDFInfo
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- DE10258874A1 DE10258874A1 DE10258874A DE10258874A DE10258874A1 DE 10258874 A1 DE10258874 A1 DE 10258874A1 DE 10258874 A DE10258874 A DE 10258874A DE 10258874 A DE10258874 A DE 10258874A DE 10258874 A1 DE10258874 A1 DE 10258874A1
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- 238000002485 combustion reaction Methods 0.000 title claims abstract description 54
- 238000000034 method Methods 0.000 title claims abstract description 24
- 239000000203 mixture Substances 0.000 title claims abstract 3
- 239000000446 fuel Substances 0.000 title abstract description 4
- 238000010438 heat treatment Methods 0.000 claims description 11
- 238000004088 simulation Methods 0.000 claims description 9
- 230000001186 cumulative effect Effects 0.000 claims description 5
- 238000012821 model calculation Methods 0.000 claims description 5
- 238000010304 firing Methods 0.000 claims description 2
- 230000009347 mechanical transmission Effects 0.000 claims description 2
- 238000005293 physical law Methods 0.000 claims description 2
- 238000005094 computer simulation Methods 0.000 abstract 1
- 239000007789 gas Substances 0.000 description 4
- 230000033001 locomotion Effects 0.000 description 4
- 238000004364 calculation method Methods 0.000 description 3
- 230000006870 function Effects 0.000 description 3
- 238000005259 measurement Methods 0.000 description 3
- MWUXSHHQAYIFBG-UHFFFAOYSA-N nitrogen oxide Inorganic materials O=[N] MWUXSHHQAYIFBG-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 3
- 230000005540 biological transmission Effects 0.000 description 2
- 230000010354 integration Effects 0.000 description 2
- 230000000630 rising effect Effects 0.000 description 2
- 206010053615 Thermal burn Diseases 0.000 description 1
- 238000005056 compaction Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000006835 compression Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000007906 compression Methods 0.000 description 1
- 238000013211 curve analysis Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000001419 dependent effect Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000011156 evaluation Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000005484 gravity Effects 0.000 description 1
- 230000015654 memory Effects 0.000 description 1
- 230000029305 taxis Effects 0.000 description 1
Classifications
-
- F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
- F02—COMBUSTION ENGINES; HOT-GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT ENGINE PLANTS
- F02D—CONTROLLING COMBUSTION ENGINES
- F02D35/00—Controlling engines, dependent on conditions exterior or interior to engines, not otherwise provided for
- F02D35/02—Controlling engines, dependent on conditions exterior or interior to engines, not otherwise provided for on interior conditions
- F02D35/023—Controlling engines, dependent on conditions exterior or interior to engines, not otherwise provided for on interior conditions by determining the cylinder pressure
- F02D35/024—Controlling engines, dependent on conditions exterior or interior to engines, not otherwise provided for on interior conditions by determining the cylinder pressure using an estimation
-
- F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
- F02—COMBUSTION ENGINES; HOT-GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT ENGINE PLANTS
- F02D—CONTROLLING COMBUSTION ENGINES
- F02D41/00—Electrical control of supply of combustible mixture or its constituents
- F02D41/02—Circuit arrangements for generating control signals
- F02D41/14—Introducing closed-loop corrections
- F02D41/1401—Introducing closed-loop corrections characterised by the control or regulation method
- F02D2041/1433—Introducing closed-loop corrections characterised by the control or regulation method using a model or simulation of the system
-
- F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
- F02—COMBUSTION ENGINES; HOT-GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT ENGINE PLANTS
- F02D—CONTROLLING COMBUSTION ENGINES
- F02D2250/00—Engine control related to specific problems or objectives
- F02D2250/18—Control of the engine output torque
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- Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
- Chemical & Material Sciences (AREA)
- Combustion & Propulsion (AREA)
- Mechanical Engineering (AREA)
- General Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
- Combined Controls Of Internal Combustion Engines (AREA)
Abstract
Description
Die Erfindung betrifft ein Verfahren zur Steuerung einer Brennkraftmaschine der im Oberbegriff des Anspruchs 1 angegebenen Gattung.The invention relates to a method for controlling an internal combustion engine in the preamble of claim 1 specified genus.
Bei modernen Brennkraftmaschinen, insbesondere als Antriebsmotoren für Kraftfahrzeuge, werden die motorischen Brennverfahren zunehmend komplexer, und zwar bedingt durch die wechselnden Betriebsarten wie Schichtladung, Magerbetrieb oder Raumzündung. In gleichem Maße werden zunehmend komplexere Motorsteuerungen erforderlich, um die unterschiedlichen Betriebsarten und deren Wechsel auf geeignete Weise zu ermöglichen. Die hierzu benutzten Motorsteuerungen basieren auf Kennfeldern, die in entsprechenden Speichern der Steuergeräte abgelegt sind. Die steigende Komplexität der Brennverfahren führt zu einem kaum noch zu bewältigenden Anstieg von Kennfeldern, die enorme Speicherkapazitäten binden. Hierzu kommt, dass für unterschiedliche Motortypen auch unterschiedliche Sammlungen von Kennfeldern zusammengestellt werden müssen und der damit erforderliche Aufwand zu steigenden Kosten führt.In modern internal combustion engines, In particular, as drive motors for motor vehicles, the motor combustion increasingly complex, and indeed conditionally through the changing operating modes such as stratified charge, lean operation or space ignition. Equally increasingly complex engine control systems are required to meet the different operating modes and their change to suitable Way to enable. The motor controls used for this purpose are based on maps, which are stored in corresponding memories of the control units. The rising complexity the combustion process leads to a barely manageable Increase in maps that bind enormous storage capacities. On top of that comes that for different engine types also different collections of Maps must be compiled and the required Effort leads to rising costs.
Der Erfindung liegt die Aufgabe zugrunde, ein Verfahren zur Steuerung einer Brennkraftmaschine der gattungsgemäßen Art zu schaffen, durch das die Anzahl benötigter Kennfelder minimiert und der Umfang zu speichernder Daten in erheblichem Maße reduziert wird.The invention is based on the object a method for controlling an internal combustion engine of the generic type to create, minimized by the number of required maps and significantly reduces the amount of data to be stored becomes.
Diese Aufgabe wird durch ein Verfahren zur Steuerung einer Brennkraftmaschine mit den Merkmalen des Anspruchs 1 gelöst.This task is performed by a procedure for controlling an internal combustion engine having the features of the claim 1 solved.
Durch die vorliegende Erfindung wird erreicht, dass ein Ersatzmodell des tatsächlichen Hochdruckprozesses erstellt ist, mit Hilfe dessen ein auf physikalischen Gesetzmäßigkeiten basierendes Motormodell die für die Motorsteuerung erforderlichen Daten umgehend bestimmt und damit die Motorsteuerung vornehmen kann. Dabei werden an die Prozesssimulation unterschiedliche Anforderungen gestellt wie beispielsweise
- – Betriebsarten (homogen, geschichtet, mager)
- – Regeln/Steuern (momentenneutrales Umschalten zwischen den Betriebsarten)
- – Prozessdaten (pmax, Klopfen, NOx, Lage der Verbrennung)
- - Applikation (Datum mit geometrisch physikalischen Daten).
- - Operating modes (homogeneous, stratified, lean)
- - Rules / taxes (torque-neutral switching between the operating modes)
- - Process data (p max , knock, NO x , location of combustion)
- - Application (date with geometric physical data).
Bei modernen Motorsteuerungen wird die Bewegung des Gaspedals in elektrische Signale umgewandelt und zuerst an das Steuergerät weitergeleitet. Durch die Ansteuerung der Drosselklappe über das Motormanagement übernimmt die Elektronik die Füllungsregelung der Zylinder und damit auch die Last bzw. das vom Motor zur Verfügung gestellte Moment. Der sich aus der Pedalbewegung ergebende Fahrerwunsch wird dem Steuergerät als Momentenanforderung an den Verbrennungsmotor weitergeleitet. Somit kann die Motorsteuerung auf der Grundlage der Momentenstruktur erfolgen, wobei alle Anforderungen an den Motor ebenfalls als positive oder negative Momente in das Steuergerät eingegeben werden. Aus den verschiedenen Momenten wird dann das Sollmoment des Motors ermittelt und entsprechende, Signale werden zum Motor übertragen.In modern engine controls is the movement of the accelerator pedal is converted into electrical signals and first to the controller forwarded. By controlling the throttle valve over the Engine management takes over the electronics the filling regulation the cylinder and thus the load or provided by the engine Moment. The resulting from the pedal movement driver request is the control unit forwarded as torque request to the internal combustion engine. Thus, the engine control can be based on the torque structure All the requirements for the engine are also positive or negative moments are entered into the controller. From the different moments then the desired torque of the engine is determined and corresponding signals are transmitted to the engine.
Für eine derartige Motorsteuerung mit Momentenstruktur ist es zweckmäßig, dass in der Modellrechnung eine Momentenstruktur enthalten ist, die zumindest das Antriebsmoment und den indizierten Mitteldruck der Hochdruckschleife berücksichtigt. Zweckmäßigerweise werden selbstverständlich auch weitere Mo mente einbezogen wie beispielsweise das Lastwechselmoment, das Moment der mechanischen Übertragung, das Moment der Nebenaggregate und ggf. weitere.For Such a motor control with torque structure, it is expedient that in the model calculation a moment structure is contained, which at least the drive torque and the indicated mean pressure of the high pressure loop considered. Conveniently, become self-evident also incorporating other moments, such as the momentum load, the moment of mechanical transmission, the moment of the ancillaries and possibly further.
Eine besonders einfache Ermittlung des Heizverlaufs ist dadurch gegeben, dass dieser aus der Multiplikation des Summenbrennverlaufs mit dem Wirkungsgrad gebildet wird. Dieser Wirkungsgrad kann aus dem Summenbrennverlauf und den Wandwärmeverlusten ermittelt werden.A particularly simple determination the heating process is given by the fact that this multiplication the sum combustion curve is formed with the efficiency. This Efficiency can be calculated from the cumulative combustion process and the wall heat losses be determined.
Für die Simulation des Hochdruckprozesses wird der Druckverlauf in der Hochdruckschleife zweckmäßigerweise in fünf Abschnitte unterteilt, die sich an physikalischen Messgrößen orientieren, nämlich dem unteren Totpunkt, dem Schließzeitpunkt des Einlassventils, dem Verbrennungsbeginn, dem Verbrennungsende und dem Öffnen des Auslassventils.For The simulation of the high pressure process will change the pressure in the High-pressure loop expediently in five Subdivided sections that are based on physical quantities, namely the bottom dead center, the closing time of the inlet valve, the beginning of combustion, the end of combustion and the opening of the Exhaust valve.
Ein Ausführungsbeispiel der Erfindung ist nachstehend anhand der Zeichnung näher erläutert.An embodiment of the invention is explained below with reference to the drawing.
Dabei zeigen:Showing:
In
Die Einstellung bzw. Bewegung des
Gaspedals liegt als entsprechendes Eingangssignal
Um die Momentenanforderung zu erfüllen, muß somit
eine entsprechende Wärmemenge
QB gemäß Bezugszeichen
Daraus ergibt sich ein Antriebsdrehmoment
Das Produkt lautet: QB·ηiHD = pmiHD.The product is: Q B · η iHD = p miHD .
Dabei bedeuten:
QB Wärmemenge
des Brennstoffs
ηiHD indizierter Wirkungsgrad des Hochdruckanteils
pmiHD indizierter Mitteldruck der Hochdruckschleife
MLW Moment des Lastwechsels
MMech mechanisches Moment
MNeben Moment
der Nebenaggregate
MAntr Antriebsmoment.Where:
Q B Heat quantity of the fuel
η iHD indexed efficiency of the high pressure component
p miHD indicated mean pressure of the high pressure loop
M LW moment of load change
M Mech mechanical moment
M In addition moment of ancillaries
M Antr drive torque.
Für die Bewertung eines Verbrennungsmotors ist es erforderlich, den Ort zu untersuchen, an dem Leistung und Abgas entstehen, also den Brennraum. Dies wird in geeigneter Weise durch die Messung des Druckes im Zylinder erreicht und zwar sowohl in der Hochdruckphase als auch während des Lastwechsels. Bei dieser Messung handelt es sich um die sogenannte Indizierung. Die Messung des indizierten Mitteldrucks der Hochdruckschleife pmiHD ermöglicht eine Prozesssimulation, die den bereits weiter vorne genannten Anforderungen entspricht.For the assessment of an internal combustion engine, it is necessary to investigate the location at which power and exhaust gas are produced, ie the combustion chamber. This is suitably achieved by measuring the pressure in the cylinder both in the high pressure phase and during the load change. This measurement is the so-called indexing. The measurement of the indicated mean pressure of the high-pressure loop p miHD enables a process simulation that meets the requirements mentioned earlier .
Die
Für die Vorgänge im Brennraum einer Brennkraftmaschine ist der erste Hauptsatz der Thermodynamik zugrunde zu legen, der das Gesetz zur Erhaltung der Energie beschreibt. Bei geöffneten Ventilen findet ein Massentransport statt, es handelt sich in dieser Phase um ein offenes System. Keinen Massen transport gibt es bei geschlossenen Ventilen, in dieser Phase spricht man von einem geschlossenen System. Die "momentane Energiebilanz" im geschlossenen System wird wie folgt ausgedrückt: wobei alle den Brennraum verlassenden Energien negativ (-) sind und alle in den Brennraum eintretenden Energien positiv (+) sind. Zur Vereinfachung wird die Leckage H1 = 0 gesetzt.For the processes in the combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine is based on the first law of thermodynamics, which describes the law for the conservation of energy. When the valves are open, one finds Mass transport instead, it is an open system in this phase. There is no mass transport with closed valves, in this phase one speaks of a closed system. The "instantaneous energy balance" in the closed system is expressed as follows: where all energies leaving the combustion chamber are negative (-) and all energies entering the combustion chamber are positive (+). For the sake of simplicity, the leakage H 1 = 0 is set.
Die
Da nach Auswertung der Indiziermessung die Werte des Summenbrennverlaufs QSB und der Wandwärmeverluste QW bekannt sind, können daraus sowohl der Heizverlauf QSH als auch der Wirkungsgrad ηH des Heizverlaufs ermittelt werden, denn es gilt die Beziehung Since the values of the cumulative combustion curve Q SB and the wall heat losses Q W are known after evaluation of the indexing measurement, both the heating curve Q SH and the efficiency η H of the heating curve can be determined from this, because the relationship applies
Die Benutzung des Wirkungsgrades ηH vereinfacht bei dem erfindungsgemäßen Verfahren die Berechnung. Die beim Betrieb der Brennkraftmaschine tatsächlich auftretenden Verluste sind sehr schwierig zu ermitteln und erfordern zeitintensive Berechnungen, was durch die erfindungsgemäße Modellberechnung und die Benutzung des Wirkungsgrades ηH vermieden wird.The use of the efficiency η H simplifies the calculation in the method according to the invention. The losses actually occurring during operation of the internal combustion engine are very difficult to determine and require time-intensive calculations, which is avoided by the model calculation according to the invention and the use of the efficiency η H.
Die
Der Schwerpunkt des neuen Berechnungsmodells
liegt auf der Nachbildung des Druckverlaufs mit Hilfe der im Fahrzeug
meßbaren
Größen sowie
der bei der Motorapplikation ermittelten und programmierten Kennfelder
bzw. Kennwerte. Somit ist das pmiHD-Modell
ein Ersatz für
den tatsächlichen
Hochdruckpro zess. Hierfür
wird die Hochdruckschleife in eindeutig definierter Abschnitte unterteilt,
wie dies aus
1. Abschnitt:
Unterer Totpunkt – Einlassventil
schließen
(UT – ES)
2.
Abschnitt: Einlassventil schließen – Verbrennungsbeginn
(ES – VB)
3.
Abschnitt: Verbrennungsbeginn – Verbrennungsende
(VB – VE)
4.
Abschnitt: Verbrennungsende – Auslassventil öffnen (VE – AÖ)
5.
Abschnitt: Auslassventil öffnen – Unterer
Totpunkt (AÖ – UT).The focus of the new calculation model is on the simulation of the pressure curve with the aid of the variables measurable in the vehicle as well as the characteristic maps or characteristic values determined and programmed in the motor application. Thus, the p miHD model is a substitute for the actual Hochdruckpro zess. For this purpose, the high-pressure loop is divided into clearly defined sections, as is out
1st section: bottom dead center - close inlet valve (UT - ES)
Section 2: Close inlet valve - start of combustion (ES - VB)
Section 3: Start of combustion - End of combustion (VB - VE)
Section 4: Opening the combustion end valve (VE - AÖ)
Section 5: Opening the outlet valve - bottom dead center (AÖ - UT).
Für jeden der Abschnitte lassen sich die physikalischen Abläufe berechnen und sofort mit den tatsächlichen Werten vergleichen.For Each of the sections can be used to calculate the physical processes and immediately with the actual Compare values.
Die
Daraus erhält man die Ergebnisgrößen beispielsweise für den Verbrennungsbeginn VB, die Verbrennungsdauer VD, den m-Faktor, den Zündzeitpunkt ZZB, die Lage der Verbrennung sowie die Wandwärmeverluste QW.From this one obtains the result quantities for example for the start of combustion VB, the combustion duration VD, the m-factor, the ignition time ZZB, the position of the combustion and the wall heat losses Q W.
Diese Ergebnisgrößen werden für die rechts
in
UT-ES:
Kompression bei schließendem
Einlassventil
ES: Brennraumfüllung, Mischtemperatur,
ES-VB:
Polytrope Verdichtung
VB-VE: Vibe Wärmefreisetzung
VE-AÖ: Polytrope
Expansion
AÖ-UT:
Expansion bei öffnendem
Auslassventil.These results are for the right in
UT-ES: Compression with closing inlet valve
ES: combustion chamber filling, mixing temperature,
ES-VB: Polytropic compaction
VB-VE: Vibe heat release
VE-AÖ: Polytropic expansion
AÖ-UT: Expansion with opening exhaust valve.
Claims (6)
Priority Applications (1)
Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
---|---|---|---|
DE10258874A DE10258874A1 (en) | 2002-12-17 | 2002-12-17 | Model-based combustion engine control method in which, in an energy balance model, the total energy input corresponding to the fuel air mixture is matched to heat output and converted heat energy |
Applications Claiming Priority (1)
Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
---|---|---|---|
DE10258874A DE10258874A1 (en) | 2002-12-17 | 2002-12-17 | Model-based combustion engine control method in which, in an energy balance model, the total energy input corresponding to the fuel air mixture is matched to heat output and converted heat energy |
Publications (1)
Publication Number | Publication Date |
---|---|
DE10258874A1 true DE10258874A1 (en) | 2004-07-22 |
Family
ID=32518997
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DE10258874A Withdrawn DE10258874A1 (en) | 2002-12-17 | 2002-12-17 | Model-based combustion engine control method in which, in an energy balance model, the total energy input corresponding to the fuel air mixture is matched to heat output and converted heat energy |
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DE (1) | DE10258874A1 (en) |
Cited By (4)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
DE102004026213A1 (en) * | 2004-05-28 | 2005-12-15 | Volkswagen Ag | Combustion motor e.g. diesel motor, loss determining method, involves determining loss as sum of determined load-dependent loss share, temperature-dependent loss share and gas exchange-loss share |
EP1813798A1 (en) * | 2004-11-18 | 2007-08-01 | Toyota Jidosha Kabushiki Kaisha | Control device for internal combustion engine and air-fuel ratio calculation method |
WO2009143858A1 (en) * | 2008-05-26 | 2009-12-03 | Fev Motorentechnik Gmbh | Method for controlling an injection process of an internal combustion engine, control device for an internal combustion engine and an internal combustion engine |
WO2015144704A1 (en) * | 2014-03-25 | 2015-10-01 | Fev Gmbh | Model-based pilot control for controlling the combustion rate |
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DE19520605C1 (en) * | 1995-06-06 | 1996-05-23 | Daimler Benz Ag | Set-point control of combustion sequence in Otto-cycle IC engine |
DE19744817A1 (en) * | 1997-10-02 | 1999-04-15 | Iourii Gribov | Air bag system for vehicle |
DE19749814A1 (en) * | 1997-11-11 | 1999-05-12 | Bosch Gmbh Robert | Method to measure pressure in internal combustion chamber as function of crankshaft angle |
DE10000918A1 (en) * | 2000-01-12 | 2001-07-19 | Volkswagen Ag | Method and device for controlling an internal combustion engine |
DE10135954A1 (en) * | 2000-08-14 | 2002-03-07 | Ford Global Tech Inc | Control system for engine with lean NOx trap that is periodically purged, uses engine torque, feedgas emissions and exhaust gas temperature models, based on engine operating parameters |
DE10047812A1 (en) * | 2000-09-27 | 2002-04-18 | Volkswagen Ag | Method for controlling the operation of a combustion engine, especially a diesel engine, involves inferring actual heating characteristic of combustion chamber from detected operating parameter |
DE10104753A1 (en) * | 2001-02-02 | 2002-08-08 | Volkswagen Ag | Test circuit for monitoring combustion in cylinder of internal combustion engine receives signals from crankshaft angle sensor and pressure sensor |
-
2002
- 2002-12-17 DE DE10258874A patent/DE10258874A1/en not_active Withdrawn
Patent Citations (7)
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DE19520605C1 (en) * | 1995-06-06 | 1996-05-23 | Daimler Benz Ag | Set-point control of combustion sequence in Otto-cycle IC engine |
DE19744817A1 (en) * | 1997-10-02 | 1999-04-15 | Iourii Gribov | Air bag system for vehicle |
DE19749814A1 (en) * | 1997-11-11 | 1999-05-12 | Bosch Gmbh Robert | Method to measure pressure in internal combustion chamber as function of crankshaft angle |
DE10000918A1 (en) * | 2000-01-12 | 2001-07-19 | Volkswagen Ag | Method and device for controlling an internal combustion engine |
DE10135954A1 (en) * | 2000-08-14 | 2002-03-07 | Ford Global Tech Inc | Control system for engine with lean NOx trap that is periodically purged, uses engine torque, feedgas emissions and exhaust gas temperature models, based on engine operating parameters |
DE10047812A1 (en) * | 2000-09-27 | 2002-04-18 | Volkswagen Ag | Method for controlling the operation of a combustion engine, especially a diesel engine, involves inferring actual heating characteristic of combustion chamber from detected operating parameter |
DE10104753A1 (en) * | 2001-02-02 | 2002-08-08 | Volkswagen Ag | Test circuit for monitoring combustion in cylinder of internal combustion engine receives signals from crankshaft angle sensor and pressure sensor |
Cited By (6)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
DE102004026213A1 (en) * | 2004-05-28 | 2005-12-15 | Volkswagen Ag | Combustion motor e.g. diesel motor, loss determining method, involves determining loss as sum of determined load-dependent loss share, temperature-dependent loss share and gas exchange-loss share |
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EP1813798A1 (en) * | 2004-11-18 | 2007-08-01 | Toyota Jidosha Kabushiki Kaisha | Control device for internal combustion engine and air-fuel ratio calculation method |
EP1813798A4 (en) * | 2004-11-18 | 2009-07-22 | Toyota Motor Co Ltd | CONTROL DEVICE FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AND METHOD FOR CALCULATING AIR-FUEL RATIO |
WO2009143858A1 (en) * | 2008-05-26 | 2009-12-03 | Fev Motorentechnik Gmbh | Method for controlling an injection process of an internal combustion engine, control device for an internal combustion engine and an internal combustion engine |
WO2015144704A1 (en) * | 2014-03-25 | 2015-10-01 | Fev Gmbh | Model-based pilot control for controlling the combustion rate |
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