CN119475743A - A modeling method for fractured oil and gas reservoirs in volcanic buried hills - Google Patents
A modeling method for fractured oil and gas reservoirs in volcanic buried hills Download PDFInfo
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Abstract
The invention relates to a volcanic down-the-hole crack hydrocarbon reservoir modeling method which comprises the steps of S1, identifying cracks in the volcanic down-hole crack hydrocarbon reservoir modeling method according to imaging logging data, analyzing the occurrence characteristics of the identified cracks, grouping the cracks according to the occurrence characteristics, explaining main crack development factors of a target area, S2, respectively constructing crack development probability bodies aiming at each main control factor based on the main crack development factors of the target area, and fusing the crack development probability bodies controlled by other main control factors to form a comprehensive crack development probability body, S3, constructing crack density data bodies of each group of cracks by taking liner crack linear density data of the grouped cracks as integration and taking the comprehensive crack development probability bodies as constraint conditions, and S4, and establishing a crack spatial distribution model according to the statistical structure of the occurrence characteristics of each group of cracks and combining the corresponding crack density data bodies.
Description
Technical Field
The invention relates to the technical field of offshore oil and gas field development, in particular to a modeling method of a volcanic down-the-hole crack hydrocarbon reservoir.
Background
The buried hill refers to an ancient topography high point belonging to a basin foundation buried under a young stratum without integration. The formation of the submarine mountain is generally subjected to multi-stage complex structural movement transformation, a multi-formation-factor and complex-occurrence fracture system is adopted, and a reservoir has extremely strong heterogeneity, and particularly for lithologic compact volcanic oil and gas reservoirs, the fracture is an important reservoir space and seepage channel.
At present, the modeling of the volcanic fractured hydrocarbon reservoir is mainly based on fracture cause analysis, and a fracture density body and attribute model are constructed by restraining the spatial distribution of the fracture through logging and seismic data. For example, the main control factors of crack development are defined by fusing the cause and the relief evolution characteristics of the crack, crack distribution trend bodies with different causes are constructed, then a crack attribute model is equivalently built based on well point crack parameters, the submarine mountain is divided into residual area, weathering crust, crack zone of a crack hole, high-angle crack zone of an inner curtain, compact zone and the like based on logging, logging and earthquake response, the crack development characteristics and rules are defined, development description and prediction are focused on the crack development zone, and the construction of a three-dimensional geological model of the crack is constrained.
However, the volcanic rock down-the-hill reservoir is often subjected to the processes of lifting, weathering, degrading, leaching, descending, depositing, trapping, hiding and the like, various causative cracks such as structural cracks, weathered cracks, diagenetic cracks and the like are commonly developed, and the structural cracks with main transformation function on seepage capability have the characteristics of multiple aspects, multiple systems and the like. Meanwhile, the volcanic rock buried hill is generally located in the middle and deep layer, is limited by the seismic data resolution capability and the complex reflection characteristics of volcanic rock lithology, crack distribution predicted by geophysical means presents stronger multi-solution, and the simulation result has larger uncertainty in the current volcanic rock crack buried hill oil and gas reservoir modeling method, so that the buried hill oil and gas reservoir characterization accuracy is affected.
Disclosure of Invention
Aiming at the problems, the invention aims to provide the modeling method for the volcanic down-the-shelf fissure hydrocarbon reservoir, which can be used for establishing a volcanic fissure distribution model by using various geological information and seismic attributes as well constraint conditions for fissure simulation on the basis of the research of the main control factors of the development of the volcanic reservoir fissure, reducing the uncertainty of the simulation result and objectively reflecting the development mode of the volcanic down-the-shelf fissure.
In order to achieve the above purpose, the present invention adopts the following technical scheme:
in a first aspect, the application provides a method for modeling a volcanic down-the-hill fractured reservoir, the method comprising:
s1, identifying cracks in the imaging logging data, analyzing the occurrence characteristics of the identified cracks, grouping the cracks according to the occurrence characteristics, and explaining main control factors of crack development of a target area;
s2, based on main control factors of crack development in a target area, respectively constructing a crack development probability body aiming at each main control factor, and fusing the crack development probability bodies controlled by other main control factors to form a comprehensive crack development probability body;
s3, constructing crack density data bodies of all groups of cracks by taking the grouped liner crack linear density data of the cracks as integration and taking the comprehensive probability body of crack development as constraint condition;
S4, according to the statistical structure of the occurrence characteristics of each group of cracks, a corresponding crack density data body is combined, and a crack space distribution model is established.
In one implementation, the occurrence features include fracture strike, dip azimuth.
In one implementation, the identified cracks are grouped according to their strike.
In one implementation, the main control factors comprise rock mineral components, weathering and fracture.
In one implementation, the S1 includes:
The single well fracture can be identified by means of imaging logging data, and meanwhile, the occurrence characteristics of the single fracture can be obtained;
counting the frequency distribution and the average value of the dip angle and the dip angle azimuth angle for each group of cracks respectively, comprehensively considering the discrete trend of the two parameters, and determining the concentration parameter of the occurrence distribution of each group of cracks;
And selecting a proper window and sampling interval for each group of cracks, and respectively calculating a crack linear density curve.
In one implementation, the S2 includes:
The method comprises the steps of combining well seismic data, obtaining a rock brittleness index data body by utilizing pre-stack seismic inversion calculation, and predicting the brittleness index of a target area;
the distance between the bottom boundary of each well crack development section and the top surface of the down-the-earth mountain is statistically analyzed, the average distance is obtained after the extreme value caused by the overlong or too short drilling penetration is removed, the average distance is regarded as the average thickness of a weathering zone, a crack development probability plane distribution map controlled by weathering is converted into a three-dimensional grid data body, the data body outside the average thickness range of the weathering zone is vertically endowed with a zero value, the influence of weathering is avoided, and finally the crack development probability body controlled by weathering is obtained;
Selecting a sampling interval, carrying out correlation analysis on the crack development probability and the normalized seismic attribute extracted along the well track, and converting the optimal seismic attribute body into a crack development probability body for fracture control by comparing the decision coefficients of all seismic attribute correlation analysis and selecting the seismic attribute with the highest absolute value of the decision coefficients as the optimal seismic attribute;
aiming at the influence degree of rock brittleness, weathering and fracture on crack development, weight coefficients are given to three control factors, and a comprehensive probability body of crack development is calculated.
In one implementation, a process of computing a comprehensive probability volume of crack development includes:
aiming at the influence degree of rock brittleness, weathering and fracture on crack development, weight coefficients a, b and c are given to three control factors, and a+b+c=1, 0 is less than or equal to a, b is less than or equal to 1;
The calculation is based on the following formula:
P(X)=a*P(X│A)+b*P(X│B)+c*P(X│C)
Wherein, P (X) represents the comprehensive probability of crack development, P (X-N) represents the probability of crack development controlled by a factor N with a weight coefficient of N, n=a, B, C, N=A, B, C.
In a second aspect, a computer readable storage medium is provided, where a computer program is stored, where the computer program is executed by a processor to implement the method for modeling a volcanic down-the-hole fractured reservoir according to the first aspect.
In a third aspect, a computer device is provided, including a memory and a processor, where the memory stores a computer program, and where the processor executes the computer program to implement the method for modeling a volcanic down-the-hill fractured reservoir according to the first aspect.
Compared with the prior art, the invention provides the method for modeling the volcanic rock buried hill crack hydrocarbon reservoir based on the cause control, which comprehensively evaluates the brittleness degree of the rock, the transformation degree of the wind effect on the structural joint and the like from multiple angles such as the brittleness degree, the wind erosion thickness, the fracture development degree and the like of the volcanic rock, combines the crack development probability controlled by multiple factors, constructs a crack development comprehensive probability body, constrains the spatial distribution of cracks, has more comprehensive consideration factors and has more reasonable characterization result.
Drawings
FIG. 1 is a flow chart of a method for modeling a volcanic subsurface mountain fractured reservoir based on cause control;
FIG. 2 is a split trend rose diagram in an example;
FIG. 3 is a histogram of the dip frequency distribution of NWW into a fracture in an example;
FIG. 4 is a histogram of the dip frequency distribution of NNE into a fracture in an example;
FIG. 5 is a histogram of the azimuthal frequency distribution of NWW to fracture dip in an embodiment;
FIG. 6 is a histogram of the azimuthal frequency distribution of NNE to fracture dip in an example;
FIG. 7 is a graph showing the correlation between the rock brittleness index and the crack growth probability in the example;
FIG. 8 is a graph of overburden residual formation thickness versus fracture development probability in an example;
FIG. 9 is a graph showing the correlation between curvature and crack growth probability in the example;
FIG. 10 is a graph showing the correlation between ant body and crack development probability in the example;
FIG. 11 is a graph showing correlation between coherent body and crack growth probability in the example;
FIG. 12 is a graph of a spatial distribution model of cracks in an embodiment.
Detailed Description
In order to make the objects, technical solutions and advantages of the embodiments of the present invention more clear, the technical solutions of the embodiments of the present invention will be clearly and completely described below with reference to the accompanying drawings of the embodiments of the present invention. It will be apparent that the described embodiments are some, but not all, embodiments of the invention. All other embodiments, which are obtained by a person skilled in the art based on the described embodiments of the invention, fall within the scope of protection of the invention.
Aiming at the problems in the prior art, the application provides a method for modeling a volcanic down-the-hole fissured hydrocarbon reservoir, which comprises the following steps:
s1, identifying cracks in the imaging logging data, analyzing the occurrence characteristics of the identified cracks, grouping the cracks according to the occurrence characteristics, and explaining main control factors of crack development of a target area;
s2, based on main control factors of crack development in a target area, respectively constructing a crack development probability body aiming at each main control factor, and fusing the crack development probability bodies controlled by other main control factors to form a comprehensive crack development probability body;
s3, constructing crack density data bodies of all groups of cracks by taking the grouped liner crack linear density data of the cracks as integration and taking the comprehensive probability body of crack development as constraint condition;
S4, according to the statistical structure of the occurrence characteristics of each group of cracks, a corresponding crack density data body is combined, and a crack space distribution model is established.
The flow of the method provided by the application will be described in connection with more detailed embodiments of the application and the accompanying drawings, and the technical effects thereof will be described.
As shown in FIG. 1, the method for modeling the volcanic rock down-the-hill fractured reservoir provided by the invention comprises the following steps:
and 1, analyzing the occurrence characteristics of the cracks according to the imaging logging data, and grouping the cracks.
11 According to the imaging logging result of A, B two wells, a crack trend rose diagram is manufactured, and the target area crack trend is mainly NWW as shown in fig. 2. In combination with the research results of the evolution of the green structure in the KL oil field, the main fracture trend is NWW and NNE, and at least two-stage structural movement occurs. The single well fractures are thus divided into two groups, NWW and NNE, by strike.
12 Other occurrence characteristics and density curves of the fracture can be obtained while the fracture and the trend thereof are obtained by using imaging logging data, and the other occurrence characteristics comprise inclination angles and inclination angle azimuth angles. The frequency distribution and average value of the crack dip and dip azimuth are counted in groups, the NWW groups of cracks have average dip angles of 48 degrees, the average dip angles of 7 degrees and 203 degrees, the NNE groups of cracks have average dip angles of 43 degrees, and the average dip angles of 96 degrees and 283 degrees. As is evident from fig. 3, the frequency distribution concentration degree of the two groups of crack dip angles is greater than the dip azimuth distribution, that is, the dip azimuth distribution is relatively discrete compared with the mean value, and the concentration parameter is determined to be 60 by comprehensively considering the two occurrence characteristics.
13 The single well crack development condition is explained through analysis and imaging logging, the cracks are distributed in a concentrated mode in the vertical direction of the target area, the length range of the crack development section is 5-30 m, therefore, the sampling interval for calculating the linear density of the cracks is 1m, the window length is 5m, and NWW groups of single well crack line density curves and NNE groups of single well crack line density curves are respectively obtained.
And 2, respectively constructing a single-factor controlled crack development probability body based on the main control factors of the crack development of the target area, and fusing the crack development probability bodies by combining the degree of influence of each factor on the crack development, so as to construct a comprehensive crack development probability body.
By analyzing the core sheet data, the imaging logging interpretation results and the earthquake attribute plane prediction results of A, B wells, the reservoir cracks of the down-the-hole reservoir of the raw-world volcanic in the X-well region of the KL16 oilfield are mainly controlled by the internal fracture of the down-the-hole reservoir and are influenced by lithology and weathering. Based on three main control factors, respectively constructing crack development probability bodies.
21 And (3) obtaining a brittleness index attribute body by combining pre-stack seismic data with single-well brittleness index curve inversion, and coarsening the attribute body into a three-dimensional model to obtain a brittleness index grid data body. The fracture is in obvious concentrated distribution characteristic from the single well, the fracture linear density curve can not represent the fracture development degree in the whole well section, and the difference between the vertical resolution of the seismic attribute and the single well curve is considered, therefore, the method is provided that the whole well section is segmented by selecting proper sampling intervals, the ratio of the thickness of the fracture development section to the thickness of the stratum is taken as the fracture development probability, and reflecting the development degree of the crack in a certain depth range, performing correlation analysis on the seismic attribute average value in the depth range, and establishing a correlation between the single well seismic attribute and the crack development probability so as to convert the seismic attribute body into a crack development probability body.
A. The thickness of the crack development section of the well B is 20m on average, the vertical resolution of the seismic data is about 25m, the vertical resolution difference between the logging data and the seismic data is comprehensively considered, and the 20m is determined as a sampling interval, so that the crack development probability can be ensured to accurately reflect the actual vertical development condition of the crack. The crack development probability of each depth section and the average value of the corresponding brittleness index are related, and the correlation between the crack development probability and the average value of the corresponding brittleness index is better as shown in fig. 4, and the brittleness index attribute body is subjected to mathematical transformation to obtain the crack development probability body controlled by the brittleness of the rock.
22 KL16 oil field X well zone sand-coated three lower section stratum, because of middle missing sand four section stratum, it is difficult to accurately recover the ancient topography of middle-life stratum. The contact relation between the lower section of the sand and the stratum of the middle section of the sand is integrated contact, so that the thickness of the stratum of the lower section of the sand can be considered as the thickness of the impression, and the reflected paleomorphology before the deposition of the lower section of the sand can approximately represent the basic pattern of the paleomorphology of the midrange.
To ensure the reliability of the correlation analysis, the formation deposition characteristics of the peripheral adjacent well region and the X-well region are considered to be similar, so that the unified linear regression is performed together by using other well data of the adjacent well region. The KL16 oil field is characterized in that sand four sections are covered on the midrange except the X-well region, and the sand four sections are in non-integrated contact with the sand three lower sections, so that the thickness of a stamp selected during data analysis of the adjacent well region is the sum of the thickness of the stratum at the sand four sections and the sand three lower sections, and the midrange paleomorphic morphology can be indicated.
Four wells C, D, E, F of the adjacent wells with imaging log data are selected as sample data points, the thickness of the overlying strata and the probability of crack development data are counted, and correlation analysis is carried out together with A, B well data, and the result is shown in fig. 5. The thinner part of the overlying stratum represents the high potential area of the paleo-topography, the weathering and denudation effects are relatively strong, and the crack development probability is higher.
By comparing the geological modes of other buried mountains, the weathering index CIA of the green world in the X-well area of the KL16 oilfield is about 60%, the A, B well is not drilled into the inner curtain area of the buried mountains, the revealed stratum of the green world is all located in the weathering area of the buried mountains, the bottom boundary of the crack development section is close to the bottom depth, and the vertical direction of the target area is considered to be influenced by the weathering effect. And constructing a crack development probability body for weathering control according to the overlying stratum thickness plan and the linear correlation relationship of the overlying stratum thickness plan and the overlying stratum thickness plan.
23 Fracture activity is often associated with many structural fractures, and thus fracture is an important factor affecting the development of the down-the-hill fracture. The seismic attributes commonly used for predicting crack development are mainly geometrical attributes, and the areas of fracture or crack development zone distribution are reflected through discontinuity of the same phase axis and mainly comprise a structural dip angle, a variance body, an ant body, a curvature, a coherent body and the like. The prediction of the living cracks in the KL16 oilfield mainly utilizes ant body attributes, curvature attributes and coherent body attributes. Similarly, at 20m sampling intervals, correlation analysis is performed on the seismic attributes extracted along the well track and the single well crack development probability to obtain three correlation relations between the seismic attributes and the crack development respectively, as shown in fig. 6. By comparing the magnitudes of the correlation coefficients, the ant body properties are considered to be most sensitive to crack detection in the target area, and the second is the coherent body properties, which have relatively poor curvature property response. And carrying out mathematical transformation on the ant body attribute body according to the correlation between the ant body attribute and the crack development probability to obtain a crack development probability body with fracture control.
24 Through the analysis of the steps 21), 22) and 23), the rock brittleness, paleomorphology and fracture have obvious control effect on crack development, the influence degree of different main control factors is different, and the linear regression determination coefficient R 2 of the three factors and the crack development probability can intuitively embody the correlation degree between the independent variable and the dependent variable, namely the occupation ratio which can be explained through the change of the independent variable in the change of the dependent variable. Hence k 1＝0.7427,k2＝0.4906,k3 =0.6067.
From the angle analysis of determining coefficients, for a reservoir of growth in an KL16 oilfield X-well zone, rock brittleness is a primary factor for determining the development degree of cracks, and the influence of fracture activity and weathering is relatively weakest. The method comprises the steps of taking the determined coefficients of each factor and the crack growth probability as weight coefficients, and fusing the crack growth probability bodies controlled by three factors by using a weighted average method to construct a final crack growth comprehensive probability body, namely a=0.40, b=0.33, c=0.27, P (X) =0.40X (X-A) +0.33X P (X-B) +0.27X-C, P (X-A) is the crack growth probability controlled by rock brittleness, P (X-B) is the crack growth probability controlled by fracture activity, and P (X-C) is the crack growth probability controlled by weathering.
And 3, taking NWW groups and NNE groups of single-well crack line density curves obtained in the step 1 as simulation basic data, taking a comprehensive crack development probability body as an interwell constraint condition, setting a proper variation function, carrying out interwell interpolation by using a collaborative sequential Gaussian simulation method, and respectively establishing a crack density body model of two groups of cracks.
And 4, using the inclination angles, the inclination angle azimuth angles and the concentration parameters of the two groups of cracks obtained in the step 1 as input data to restrain the azimuth characteristics of the cracks in the model, inputting corresponding crack density bodies of each group as an objective function to restrain the distribution of the cracks in the model, and establishing a space distribution model (figure 7) of each group of cracks through random simulation based on targets.
The model results show that the trend of the discrete fracture slices is mainly NWW and NNE, wherein NWW is obviously more than NEE to the fracture slices, and the fracture is mainly at a medium-high angle, which is consistent with the basic feature recognition of the fracture based on imaging logging. At the same time, there are still some other trend and trend fractures, which are related to the relatively small concentration parameter, and also accord with the frequency distribution of single well statistics. The cracks are mainly concentrated in the areas with relatively high brittleness index and the areas near the fracture, the density of the cracks near the A well is obviously higher than that of the cracks near the B well, the cracks are consistent with geological recognition and single well data, and the comprehensive analysis shows that the reliability of the crack model is high.
In the several embodiments provided by the present invention, it should be understood that the disclosed methods may be implemented in other ways. For example, the apparatus embodiments described above are merely illustrative, e.g., the division of the above elements is merely a logical functional division, and there may be additional divisions in actual implementation, e.g., multiple elements or components may be combined or integrated into another system, or some features may be omitted, or not performed. Alternatively, the coupling or direct coupling or communication connection shown or discussed with each other may be an indirect coupling or communication connection via some interfaces, devices or units, which may be in electrical, mechanical or other form.
The integrated units implemented in the form of software functional units described above may be stored in a computer readable storage medium. The software functional unit is stored in a storage medium, and includes several instructions for causing a computer device (which may be a personal computer, a server, or a network device, etc.) or a Processor (Processor) to perform part of the steps of the method according to the embodiments of the present invention. The storage medium includes a U disk, a removable hard disk, a Read-Only Memory (ROM), a random access Memory (Random Access Memory, RAM), a magnetic disk, an optical disk, or other various media capable of storing program codes.
The foregoing description of the preferred embodiments of the invention is not intended to be limiting, but rather is intended to cover all modifications, equivalents, alternatives, and improvements that fall within the spirit and scope of the invention.
Claims (9)
1. A method for modeling a volcanic down-the-hole fissured hydrocarbon reservoir, the method comprising:
s1, identifying cracks in the imaging logging data, analyzing the occurrence characteristics of the identified cracks, grouping the cracks according to the occurrence characteristics, and explaining main control factors of crack development of a target area;
s2, based on main control factors of crack development in a target area, respectively constructing a crack development probability body aiming at each main control factor, and fusing the crack development probability bodies controlled by other main control factors to form a comprehensive crack development probability body;
s3, constructing crack density data bodies of all groups of cracks by taking the grouped liner crack linear density data of the cracks as integration and taking the comprehensive probability body of crack development as constraint condition;
S4, according to the statistical structure of the occurrence characteristics of each group of cracks, a corresponding crack density data body is combined, and a crack space distribution model is established.
2. The method of modeling a volcanic down-the-hill fracture hydrocarbon reservoir of claim 1, wherein the occurrence characteristics include strike, dip azimuth of the fracture.
3. The method of modeling a volcanic down-the-hill fractured reservoir of claim 2, wherein the identified fractures are grouped according to their strike.
4. The method for modeling a volcanic down-the-hill fractured hydrocarbon reservoir according to claim 1, wherein the main control factors comprise rock mineral composition, weathering and fracture.
5. The method of modeling a volcanic down-the-hill fractured reservoir of claim 4, wherein S1 comprises:
The single well fracture can be identified by means of imaging logging data, and meanwhile, the occurrence characteristics of the single fracture can be obtained;
counting the frequency distribution and the average value of the dip angle and the dip angle azimuth angle for each group of cracks respectively, comprehensively considering the discrete trend of the two parameters, and determining the concentration parameter of the occurrence distribution of each group of cracks;
And selecting a proper window and sampling interval for each group of cracks, and respectively calculating a crack linear density curve.
6. The method of modeling a volcanic down-the-hill fractured reservoir of claim 5, wherein S2 comprises:
The method comprises the steps of combining well seismic data, obtaining a rock brittleness index data body by utilizing pre-stack seismic inversion calculation, and predicting the brittleness index of a target area;
the distance between the bottom boundary of each well crack development section and the top surface of the down-the-earth mountain is statistically analyzed, the average distance is obtained after the extreme value caused by the overlong or too short drilling penetration is removed, the average distance is regarded as the average thickness of a weathering zone, a crack development probability plane distribution map controlled by weathering is converted into a three-dimensional grid data body, the data body outside the average thickness range of the weathering zone is vertically endowed with a zero value, the influence of weathering is avoided, and finally the crack development probability body controlled by weathering is obtained;
Selecting a sampling interval, carrying out correlation analysis on the crack development probability and the normalized seismic attribute extracted along the well track, and converting the optimal seismic attribute body into a crack development probability body for fracture control by comparing the decision coefficients of all seismic attribute correlation analysis and selecting the seismic attribute with the highest absolute value of the decision coefficients as the optimal seismic attribute;
aiming at the influence degree of rock brittleness, weathering and fracture on crack development, weight coefficients are given to three control factors, and a comprehensive probability body of crack development is calculated.
7. The method of modeling a volcanic down-the-hill fractured reservoir of claim 6, wherein the process of calculating a comprehensive probability body of fracture development comprises:
aiming at the influence degree of rock brittleness, weathering and fracture on crack development, weight coefficients a, b and c are given to three control factors, and a+b+c=1, 0 is less than or equal to a, b is less than or equal to 1;
The calculation is based on the following formula:
P(X)=a*P(X│A)+b*P(X│B)+c*P(X│C)
Wherein, P (X) represents the comprehensive probability of crack development, P (X-N) represents the probability of crack development controlled by a factor N with a weight coefficient of N, n=a, B, C, N=A, B, C.
8. A computer readable storage medium, storing a computer program for execution by a processor to implement the method of modeling a volcanic down-the-hill fracture reservoir of any one of claims 1 to 7.
9. A computer device comprising a memory and a processor, the memory storing a computer program, the processor executing the computer program to implement the method of modeling a volcanic down-the-hill fracture reservoir of any one of claims 1 to 8.
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| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
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| CN120910670A (en) * | 2025-10-13 | 2025-11-07 | 中国石油大学(华东) | Identification method for volcanic rock structural cracks after weathering modification |
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| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
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| CN120910670A (en) * | 2025-10-13 | 2025-11-07 | 中国石油大学(华东) | Identification method for volcanic rock structural cracks after weathering modification |
| CN120910670B (en) * | 2025-10-13 | 2025-12-05 | 中国石油大学(华东) | A method for identifying structural cracks in volcanic rocks altered by weathering. |
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