‘Incidental’ and ‘intentional’ are terms that often appear in SLA literature to differentiate met... more ‘Incidental’ and ‘intentional’ are terms that often appear in SLA literature to differentiate methods of vocabulary learning. Incidental learning, as defined by Wesche and Paribakht (1999) in their introduction to an incidental learning thematic collection in Studies in Second Language Acquisition, refers to ‘new knowledge or competencies that learners acquire as a “byproduct;” that is, when they do not specifically intend to learn them’ (p.176). Intentional, therefore, refers to new knowledge gained through a learner’s specific resolve to commit something to memory. Reviewing the literature to determine whether it is ‘better’ to learn vocabulary either incidentally or intentionally will inevitably complicate these terms but they serve as a starting point for an exploration of the relevant research in the field. The following discussion will review historical and theoretical changes as well as learning processes and strategies in an attempt to determine which form of vocabulary learning is ‘ better. ’ The conclusions will then be applied to recommended approaches to vocabulary acquisition for Japanese university EFL students.
Learning narratives have been utilized in L2 research for various reasons for decades because the... more Learning narratives have been utilized in L2 research for various reasons for decades because they provide a view into learner thoughts, attitudes, beliefs and feelings regarding language learning. This study gathered coded data from written language learning narratives provided by Japanese university freshmen (n 84) during their first English writing class. Fourteen coded narrative elements were catalogued to paint a general picture of participants who tended to like English more than dislike it, though a significant percentage registered their dislike. A majority of participants stated they were poor at English but desired proficiency, especially for deeper cultural interactions, and that they had been positively influenced by past English teachers. Associations between academic success and particular narrative elements were also explored, with the main finding being that positive affect and desire regarding English was associated with higher grades while negative ones did not seem to register any effect on final grades.
This paper explores how Japanese university freshmen recalled their secondary school English teac... more This paper explores how Japanese university freshmen recalled their secondary school English teachers. The hope of the research is that descriptions of the "best" and "worst" teachers' character traits and actions might prove useful to current and aspiring Japanese EFL instructors. Written narratives (n = 84) describing participants' relationships with English were coded for every mention of teachers, and the data was analyzed using quantitative and qualitative methods. Questionnaire data was also collected from a separate group of participants (n = 86) to assess what descriptive words best applied to their best and worst past teachers. The results showed that more than half of the students included teachers in their writings about their relationship with the English language, and that positive teacher influences were associated with higher academic performance after a year of university courses. The narratives also revealed the markedness of fluent speech, the importance of rapport and humor, and that lasting memories were also formed outside the classroom. The questionnaire results suggested that the best teachers were associated with quality teaching, friendliness, fairness, and being interesting, whereas the worst teachers were perceived as defiant and challenging, but still interested in teaching English.
At a critical point in his slave narrative, Frederick Douglas states, “you have seen how a man wa... more At a critical point in his slave narrative, Frederick Douglas states, “you have seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man.” This article suggests that establishing the first transformation, from man to slave, is the most significant aspect of Douglass’s narrative because claiming an aboriginal state of manhood affords slaves the benefits connected with Enlightenment ideals of the individual. The article explores Douglass’s lexical choices, which invoke associations with liberating Enlightenment concepts. Since declaring an innate, freeborn manhood involves pursuing the argument that inborn manhood is subsequently stripped through experience, the article then establishes the rhetorical use of framing in the prefaces, then discusses Douglass’s explanation of the means slavers use to transform men into slaves.
Japanese secondary school students (N=524) were surveyed to assess the correlational relationship... more Japanese secondary school students (N=524) were surveyed to assess the correlational relationship between present English learning motivation and past learning narratives. An additional aim of the study was to determine whether past narratives should be operationalized into research questionnaires that utilize Zoltan Dornyei’s (2005) future oriented L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS). The results revealed a positive correlational relationship (r=.66) between past learning narratives and the motivational criterion measure, but the recommendation that past learning narrative question items should be incorporated into the present formulation of the L2MSS could not be corroborated with the data. Introduction An aspect of conducting research that is as essential as choosing a suitable population, pursuing appropriate data analysis, or even choosing a suitable theory, is the questions that the participants are asked. This is especially true for Likert scale questionnaires, where there is...
Research on mindsets has suggested that people who believe their intellectual abilities and talen... more Research on mindsets has suggested that people who believe their intellectual abilities and talents are works in progress that can be developed (growth mindset) enjoy an advantage over those who believe these aspects are set at birth (fixed mindset) because people with growth mindsets maintain motivation and positive attitudes during failures and are more willing to embrace new challenges. Since second language (L2) acquisition is a long process marked by failures and challenges, this study aims at exploring the connection between L2 motivation and growth mindsets. This study relies on a quantitative questionnaire given to second year Japanese university students (N=128) that assesses mindsets and motivation, including three aspects of Zoltán Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System. Results suggested that the participants generally leaned towards growth over fixed mindsets, but not strongly so. Regarding the relationship between mindsets and motivation, statistically significant correlational results suggested that maintaining a growth mindset was also positively connected to an increased motivation to study English and a belief that future English competency was possible.
Foreign teachers of English in Japanese universities typically aim to establish communicative, ta... more Foreign teachers of English in Japanese universities typically aim to establish communicative, task-based, student-centered EFL classrooms in accordance to their modern SLA teacher training. On the other hand, most Japanese university freshmen have limited exposure to this type of classroom. Students are more familiar with traditional Confucian, teacher-centered classrooms that often focus on test prep, rote memorization, and grammar and translation methods. This context of Western systems interacting with Confucian systems is referred to by Liu and Fisher (2010) as “one community two systems.” This paper describes the concept of “one community two systems” as it applies to Japanese university English communities. Differences between Confucian and Western classrooms are considered before focusing more specifically on English classroom differences. Schema Theory is then presented as a mechanism for considering students’ situational expectations concerning English classrooms. Finally, schema-based strategies for transitioning students across systems are discussed. The strategies fit into two categories: fostering schematic “tuning” through awareness-raising discussions of educational expectations and utilizing aspects of pre-established educational schema in tertiary classrooms.
Motivation is considered an important factor in second language (L2) learning and several theoret... more Motivation is considered an important factor in second language (L2) learning and several theoretical frameworks have been developed in order to gain insight into language learning motivation. One recent theory, Zoltán Dörnyei’s (2005) L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) focuses on how learners are internally driven by future self-images of target language proficiency (ideal L2 self), self-images based on social expectations and obligations (ought-to self), and the immediate L2 learning experience. This study aims to construct a general motivational profile for rural Japanese secondary school students using the L2MSS. Related aims include determining how motivational profiles differ across age groups and between academically stratified senior high schools, representing three different educational tracks and their associated future career trajectories. The study employs a quantitative survey instrument in six public junior high and senior high schools in rural Japan (n = 524). Age differences are examined using a cross-sectional approach between two age groups: 14 to 15 year olds and 17 to 18 year olds. Three stratified, academic track senior high schools are analyzed separately in order to draw comparisons between these groups. The data are analyzed with descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, correlations, and regression analysis. The results indicate that the students have strong instrumental orientations associated with English learning and they feel social expectations (ought-to self) to study, but many find it difficult to imagine themselves as future English speakers (ideal L2 self). Both the ought-to/ideal L2 selves contribute to motivated learning behavior, but not as much as the L2 learning experience. Regarding age, L2 learning motivation declines over time for a number of possible reasons, including test-centered curricula, tedium, and language-learning difficulty. A novel reason is also presented relating to future self-images that suggests that as students, along with their ideal L2 selves, mature into an environment, fantasies of possibilities give way to realistic adult social expectations relating to the language. Finally, the educational tracking results demonstrate a predictable decline in motivation and English’s perceived promotional rewards as academic rigor declines, and at the lower levels, ideal L2 selves become too implausible for many students to imagine. This study largely validates the L2MSS in the context, contributes to the knowledge of rural Japanese English learning motivation, and adds to the understanding of maturational changes in future L2 self-concepts during adolescence and across educational tracking institutions.
At a critical point in his slave narrative, Frederick Douglas states, “you have seen how a man wa... more At a critical point in his slave narrative, Frederick Douglas states, “you have seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man.” This article suggests that establishing the first transformation, from man to slave, is the most significant aspect of Douglass’s narrative because claiming an aboriginal state of manhood affords slaves the benefits connected with Enlightenment ideals of the individual. The article explores Douglass’s lexical choices, which invoke associations with liberating Enlightenment concepts. Since declaring an innate, freeborn manhood involves pursuing the argument that inborn manhood is subsequently stripped through experience, the article then establishes the rhetorical use of framing in the prefaces, then discusses Douglass’s explanation of the means slavers use to transform men into slaves.
The potential of information-gap tasks to enhance the language learning experience is broadly ack... more The potential of information-gap tasks to enhance the language learning experience is broadly acknowledged (Willis & Willis, 2007), and recently the added value of technology-mediated task-based approaches has been highlighted (Thomas & Reinders, 2010), as well as the role of synthetic immersive environments (Sykes, 2014). Keep Talking & Nobody Explodes—a commercially produced video game available for both Windows and Apple iOS —has proved extremely effective as a technology-mediated activity, providing both ample opportunity for strong, student-led, task completion (Skehan, 1996), with a clearly-defined outcome (Ellis, 2003): for students to avoid exploding!
Japanese secondary school students (N=524) were surveyed to assess the correlational relationship... more Japanese secondary school students (N=524) were surveyed to assess the correlational relationship between present English learning motivation and past learning narratives. An additional aim of the study was to determine whether past narratives should be operationalized into research questionnaires that utilize Zoltan Dornyei’s (2005) future oriented L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS). The results revealed a positive correlational relationship (r=.66) between past learning narratives and the motivational criterion measure, but the recommendation that past learning narrative question items should be incorporated into the present formulation of the L2MSS could not be corroborated with the data.
Previous research has found that the use of disfluent, harder to read fonts has resulted in great... more Previous research has found that the use of disfluent, harder to read fonts has resulted in greater educational outcomes, based on the assumption that disfluent fonts activate deeper processing of visual information. This study explores whether Japanese university students’ (N=200) short-term memories benefit from font-induced increases in cognitive loads while studying English vocabulary lists. Results suggest that the participants’ outcomes were significantly better in the clear, familiar, fluent font condition, rather than in the disfluent font condition, as previous research would predict. An analysis of the data while considering lexical parts of speech(PoS) suggest a decline in every category under the disfluent condition and also indicate a cognitive-load threshold marked by a precipitous drop in memorization performance with words having multiple PoS definitions.
‘Incidental’ and ‘intentional’ are terms that often appear in SLA literature to differentiate met... more ‘Incidental’ and ‘intentional’ are terms that often appear in SLA literature to differentiate methods of vocabulary learning. Incidental learning, as defined by Wesche and Paribakht (1999) in their introduction to an incidental learning thematic collection in Studies in Second Language Acquisition, refers to ‘new knowledge or competencies that learners acquire as a “byproduct;” that is, when they do not specifically intend to learn them’ (p.176). Intentional, therefore, refers to new knowledge gained through a learner’s specific resolve to commit something to memory. Reviewing the literature to determine whether it is ‘better’ to learn vocabulary either incidentally or intentionally will inevitably complicate these terms but they serve as a starting point for an exploration of the relevant research in the field. The following discussion will review historical and theoretical changes as well as learning processes and strategies in an attempt to determine which form of vocabulary learning is ‘ better. ’ The conclusions will then be applied to recommended approaches to vocabulary acquisition for Japanese university EFL students.
Learning narratives have been utilized in L2 research for various reasons for decades because the... more Learning narratives have been utilized in L2 research for various reasons for decades because they provide a view into learner thoughts, attitudes, beliefs and feelings regarding language learning. This study gathered coded data from written language learning narratives provided by Japanese university freshmen (n 84) during their first English writing class. Fourteen coded narrative elements were catalogued to paint a general picture of participants who tended to like English more than dislike it, though a significant percentage registered their dislike. A majority of participants stated they were poor at English but desired proficiency, especially for deeper cultural interactions, and that they had been positively influenced by past English teachers. Associations between academic success and particular narrative elements were also explored, with the main finding being that positive affect and desire regarding English was associated with higher grades while negative ones did not seem to register any effect on final grades.
This paper explores how Japanese university freshmen recalled their secondary school English teac... more This paper explores how Japanese university freshmen recalled their secondary school English teachers. The hope of the research is that descriptions of the "best" and "worst" teachers' character traits and actions might prove useful to current and aspiring Japanese EFL instructors. Written narratives (n = 84) describing participants' relationships with English were coded for every mention of teachers, and the data was analyzed using quantitative and qualitative methods. Questionnaire data was also collected from a separate group of participants (n = 86) to assess what descriptive words best applied to their best and worst past teachers. The results showed that more than half of the students included teachers in their writings about their relationship with the English language, and that positive teacher influences were associated with higher academic performance after a year of university courses. The narratives also revealed the markedness of fluent speech, the importance of rapport and humor, and that lasting memories were also formed outside the classroom. The questionnaire results suggested that the best teachers were associated with quality teaching, friendliness, fairness, and being interesting, whereas the worst teachers were perceived as defiant and challenging, but still interested in teaching English.
At a critical point in his slave narrative, Frederick Douglas states, “you have seen how a man wa... more At a critical point in his slave narrative, Frederick Douglas states, “you have seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man.” This article suggests that establishing the first transformation, from man to slave, is the most significant aspect of Douglass’s narrative because claiming an aboriginal state of manhood affords slaves the benefits connected with Enlightenment ideals of the individual. The article explores Douglass’s lexical choices, which invoke associations with liberating Enlightenment concepts. Since declaring an innate, freeborn manhood involves pursuing the argument that inborn manhood is subsequently stripped through experience, the article then establishes the rhetorical use of framing in the prefaces, then discusses Douglass’s explanation of the means slavers use to transform men into slaves.
Japanese secondary school students (N=524) were surveyed to assess the correlational relationship... more Japanese secondary school students (N=524) were surveyed to assess the correlational relationship between present English learning motivation and past learning narratives. An additional aim of the study was to determine whether past narratives should be operationalized into research questionnaires that utilize Zoltan Dornyei’s (2005) future oriented L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS). The results revealed a positive correlational relationship (r=.66) between past learning narratives and the motivational criterion measure, but the recommendation that past learning narrative question items should be incorporated into the present formulation of the L2MSS could not be corroborated with the data. Introduction An aspect of conducting research that is as essential as choosing a suitable population, pursuing appropriate data analysis, or even choosing a suitable theory, is the questions that the participants are asked. This is especially true for Likert scale questionnaires, where there is...
Research on mindsets has suggested that people who believe their intellectual abilities and talen... more Research on mindsets has suggested that people who believe their intellectual abilities and talents are works in progress that can be developed (growth mindset) enjoy an advantage over those who believe these aspects are set at birth (fixed mindset) because people with growth mindsets maintain motivation and positive attitudes during failures and are more willing to embrace new challenges. Since second language (L2) acquisition is a long process marked by failures and challenges, this study aims at exploring the connection between L2 motivation and growth mindsets. This study relies on a quantitative questionnaire given to second year Japanese university students (N=128) that assesses mindsets and motivation, including three aspects of Zoltán Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System. Results suggested that the participants generally leaned towards growth over fixed mindsets, but not strongly so. Regarding the relationship between mindsets and motivation, statistically significant correlational results suggested that maintaining a growth mindset was also positively connected to an increased motivation to study English and a belief that future English competency was possible.
Foreign teachers of English in Japanese universities typically aim to establish communicative, ta... more Foreign teachers of English in Japanese universities typically aim to establish communicative, task-based, student-centered EFL classrooms in accordance to their modern SLA teacher training. On the other hand, most Japanese university freshmen have limited exposure to this type of classroom. Students are more familiar with traditional Confucian, teacher-centered classrooms that often focus on test prep, rote memorization, and grammar and translation methods. This context of Western systems interacting with Confucian systems is referred to by Liu and Fisher (2010) as “one community two systems.” This paper describes the concept of “one community two systems” as it applies to Japanese university English communities. Differences between Confucian and Western classrooms are considered before focusing more specifically on English classroom differences. Schema Theory is then presented as a mechanism for considering students’ situational expectations concerning English classrooms. Finally, schema-based strategies for transitioning students across systems are discussed. The strategies fit into two categories: fostering schematic “tuning” through awareness-raising discussions of educational expectations and utilizing aspects of pre-established educational schema in tertiary classrooms.
Motivation is considered an important factor in second language (L2) learning and several theoret... more Motivation is considered an important factor in second language (L2) learning and several theoretical frameworks have been developed in order to gain insight into language learning motivation. One recent theory, Zoltán Dörnyei’s (2005) L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) focuses on how learners are internally driven by future self-images of target language proficiency (ideal L2 self), self-images based on social expectations and obligations (ought-to self), and the immediate L2 learning experience. This study aims to construct a general motivational profile for rural Japanese secondary school students using the L2MSS. Related aims include determining how motivational profiles differ across age groups and between academically stratified senior high schools, representing three different educational tracks and their associated future career trajectories. The study employs a quantitative survey instrument in six public junior high and senior high schools in rural Japan (n = 524). Age differences are examined using a cross-sectional approach between two age groups: 14 to 15 year olds and 17 to 18 year olds. Three stratified, academic track senior high schools are analyzed separately in order to draw comparisons between these groups. The data are analyzed with descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, correlations, and regression analysis. The results indicate that the students have strong instrumental orientations associated with English learning and they feel social expectations (ought-to self) to study, but many find it difficult to imagine themselves as future English speakers (ideal L2 self). Both the ought-to/ideal L2 selves contribute to motivated learning behavior, but not as much as the L2 learning experience. Regarding age, L2 learning motivation declines over time for a number of possible reasons, including test-centered curricula, tedium, and language-learning difficulty. A novel reason is also presented relating to future self-images that suggests that as students, along with their ideal L2 selves, mature into an environment, fantasies of possibilities give way to realistic adult social expectations relating to the language. Finally, the educational tracking results demonstrate a predictable decline in motivation and English’s perceived promotional rewards as academic rigor declines, and at the lower levels, ideal L2 selves become too implausible for many students to imagine. This study largely validates the L2MSS in the context, contributes to the knowledge of rural Japanese English learning motivation, and adds to the understanding of maturational changes in future L2 self-concepts during adolescence and across educational tracking institutions.
At a critical point in his slave narrative, Frederick Douglas states, “you have seen how a man wa... more At a critical point in his slave narrative, Frederick Douglas states, “you have seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man.” This article suggests that establishing the first transformation, from man to slave, is the most significant aspect of Douglass’s narrative because claiming an aboriginal state of manhood affords slaves the benefits connected with Enlightenment ideals of the individual. The article explores Douglass’s lexical choices, which invoke associations with liberating Enlightenment concepts. Since declaring an innate, freeborn manhood involves pursuing the argument that inborn manhood is subsequently stripped through experience, the article then establishes the rhetorical use of framing in the prefaces, then discusses Douglass’s explanation of the means slavers use to transform men into slaves.
The potential of information-gap tasks to enhance the language learning experience is broadly ack... more The potential of information-gap tasks to enhance the language learning experience is broadly acknowledged (Willis & Willis, 2007), and recently the added value of technology-mediated task-based approaches has been highlighted (Thomas & Reinders, 2010), as well as the role of synthetic immersive environments (Sykes, 2014). Keep Talking & Nobody Explodes—a commercially produced video game available for both Windows and Apple iOS —has proved extremely effective as a technology-mediated activity, providing both ample opportunity for strong, student-led, task completion (Skehan, 1996), with a clearly-defined outcome (Ellis, 2003): for students to avoid exploding!
Japanese secondary school students (N=524) were surveyed to assess the correlational relationship... more Japanese secondary school students (N=524) were surveyed to assess the correlational relationship between present English learning motivation and past learning narratives. An additional aim of the study was to determine whether past narratives should be operationalized into research questionnaires that utilize Zoltan Dornyei’s (2005) future oriented L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS). The results revealed a positive correlational relationship (r=.66) between past learning narratives and the motivational criterion measure, but the recommendation that past learning narrative question items should be incorporated into the present formulation of the L2MSS could not be corroborated with the data.
Previous research has found that the use of disfluent, harder to read fonts has resulted in great... more Previous research has found that the use of disfluent, harder to read fonts has resulted in greater educational outcomes, based on the assumption that disfluent fonts activate deeper processing of visual information. This study explores whether Japanese university students’ (N=200) short-term memories benefit from font-induced increases in cognitive loads while studying English vocabulary lists. Results suggest that the participants’ outcomes were significantly better in the clear, familiar, fluent font condition, rather than in the disfluent font condition, as previous research would predict. An analysis of the data while considering lexical parts of speech(PoS) suggest a decline in every category under the disfluent condition and also indicate a cognitive-load threshold marked by a precipitous drop in memorization performance with words having multiple PoS definitions.
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Papers by Evan Cacali
The study employs a quantitative survey instrument in six public junior high and senior high schools in rural Japan (n = 524). Age differences are examined using a cross-sectional approach between two age groups: 14 to 15 year olds and 17 to 18 year olds. Three stratified, academic track senior high schools are analyzed separately in order to draw comparisons between these groups. The data are analyzed with descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, correlations, and regression analysis.
The results indicate that the students have strong instrumental orientations associated with English learning and they feel social expectations (ought-to self) to study, but many find it difficult to imagine themselves as future English speakers (ideal L2 self). Both the ought-to/ideal L2 selves contribute to motivated learning behavior, but not as much as the L2 learning experience. Regarding age, L2 learning motivation declines over time for a number of possible reasons, including test-centered curricula, tedium, and language-learning difficulty. A novel reason is also presented relating to future self-images that suggests that as students, along with their ideal L2 selves, mature into an environment, fantasies of possibilities give way to realistic adult social expectations relating to the language. Finally, the educational tracking results demonstrate a predictable decline in motivation and English’s perceived promotional rewards as academic rigor declines, and at the lower levels, ideal L2 selves become too implausible for many students to imagine. This study largely validates the L2MSS in the context, contributes to the knowledge of rural Japanese English learning motivation, and adds to the understanding of maturational changes in future L2 self-concepts during adolescence and across educational tracking institutions.
The study employs a quantitative survey instrument in six public junior high and senior high schools in rural Japan (n = 524). Age differences are examined using a cross-sectional approach between two age groups: 14 to 15 year olds and 17 to 18 year olds. Three stratified, academic track senior high schools are analyzed separately in order to draw comparisons between these groups. The data are analyzed with descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, correlations, and regression analysis.
The results indicate that the students have strong instrumental orientations associated with English learning and they feel social expectations (ought-to self) to study, but many find it difficult to imagine themselves as future English speakers (ideal L2 self). Both the ought-to/ideal L2 selves contribute to motivated learning behavior, but not as much as the L2 learning experience. Regarding age, L2 learning motivation declines over time for a number of possible reasons, including test-centered curricula, tedium, and language-learning difficulty. A novel reason is also presented relating to future self-images that suggests that as students, along with their ideal L2 selves, mature into an environment, fantasies of possibilities give way to realistic adult social expectations relating to the language. Finally, the educational tracking results demonstrate a predictable decline in motivation and English’s perceived promotional rewards as academic rigor declines, and at the lower levels, ideal L2 selves become too implausible for many students to imagine. This study largely validates the L2MSS in the context, contributes to the knowledge of rural Japanese English learning motivation, and adds to the understanding of maturational changes in future L2 self-concepts during adolescence and across educational tracking institutions.