PHRYGIA IN ANTIQUITY: FROM THE BRONZE AGE TO THE BYZANTINE PERIOD Proceedings of an International Conference ‘The Phrygian Lands over Time: From Prehistory to the Middle of the 1st Millennium AD’, held at Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey, 2nd–8th November, 2015, Dec 9, 2019
https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1q26v1n.18
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1q26v1n.18
Most of th... more https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1q26v1n.18
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1q26v1n.18
Most of the architectural remains from Byzantine Phrygia found by archaeological excavation consist of churches and architectural pieces used in churches. Roman period buildings were converted into churches and new ones were built, as in other regions. There are less known Byzantine period rock-cut churches between Eskişehir, Afyonkarahisar and Kütahya. Although dating the rock-cut structures is not as easy as dating masonry buildings, it seems that most of them belong to the Middle Byzantine period. On the other hand, some can be dated to the Early Byzantine period by virtue of their plan features and architectural elements. To whichever they belong, these churches shows that the rock-cut architectural tradition of Phrygia continued through the Middle Ages. They contain some features which are associated with pre-Christian beliefs, also make them interesting.
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https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1q26v1n.18
Most of the architectural remains from Byzantine Phrygia found by archaeological excavation consist of churches and architectural pieces used in churches. Roman period buildings were converted into churches and new ones were built, as in other regions. There are less known Byzantine period rock-cut churches between Eskişehir, Afyonkarahisar and Kütahya. Although dating the rock-cut structures is not as easy as dating masonry buildings, it seems that most of them belong to the Middle Byzantine period. On the other hand, some can be dated to the Early Byzantine period by virtue of their plan features and architectural elements. To whichever they belong, these churches shows that the rock-cut architectural tradition of Phrygia continued through the Middle Ages. They contain some features which are associated with pre-Christian beliefs, also make them interesting.
In the excavations of the Lycian Olympos, materials found at the aisles of Church No. 3 indicating that such a pavement may have been applied in the opus tessellatum technique on the gallery floors above the aisles. According to the traces that can be seen today, the gallery floors of the church were constructed with timber joists and planks carried by the walls and nave arcades. The beam holes on the walls and the ruins of the nave arcades and galleries clearly show this. Mosaic fragments, tesserae, and subfloor materials which do not belong to the ground floor, were found just below the ruins of the nave arcades at both aisles, and these remains are thought to belong to the floor pavements of wooden constructed galleries.
In this study, it is explained how the mosaic pavements were constructed on the wooden upper floor decks through the findings in Church No. 3 of Olympos with reference to some other examples.
In this study, the structure is documented as it stands today, its construction history is discussed and evaluated in terms of the discipline of Art History by examining the changes that the building has undergone.
Olympos, an ancient city located in the region of Lycia in southwest Anatolia, had an important place through history. The most striking feature observed at Olympos is that the urban texture reflects the Roman, Early Christian and Early Byzantine periods with the transformation attestable. In this paper, the ancient city of Olympos and the city's urban texture of different periods in detail by considering processes of change is intended to reveal the original structure. The main purpose of that study is produced 3D models for Olympos as an reanimation of the city in a virtual environment based on scientific data. The urban texture of Olympos in Roman and Byzantine periods determined much more easily and quickly carried out restitituon with 3D system. So that cultural and architectural heritage of the ancient world and its functions became more clear.
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field work undoubtedly affected this growing interest in the region which was not widely acknowledged for its cultural wealth until recently. One of the most important features of the region that is of interest is
that it has been home to many different civilizations uninterruptedly for ages in its natural setting. This accumulation is also related to the region's geographical location. The fact that the Phrygian Region was
an important point of transportation and trade in Anatolia is documented with historical information.
Rock architecture that still exists in the present day can be observed in the tuff accumulations within geological formations. Dating back to prehistoric ages and at times reaching a thickness of 200 meters,
tuff accumulation, as a result of its nature, emerges as different rock shapes with the effects of wind and floods. Carving spaces for various functions in these rock formations begins in the Phrygian period. The Phrygian monuments found in the region are the most striking examples of these accumulations. This tradition that began with the Phrygians continued in the Roman and Byzantine periods. It would be correct to say that Phrygia is the richest region in Anatolia in terms of rock formations and architecture after Cappadocia.
Günümüzde halen varlığını sürdüren kaya mimarisi, jeolojik formasyon içindeki tüf oluşumlarında izlenebilir. Tarih öncesi çağlara uzanan ve kalınlığı yer yer ikiyüz metreyi bulan tüf oluşumu, yapısı gereği rüzgar ve sel sularının etkisiyle farklı kaya şekilleriyle ortaya çıkar. Oluşan bu kaya kütleleri içine farklı işlevde mekânların oyulması Frig döneminde başlar. Bölgede Friglerden kalma anıtlar, bu birikimin en çarpıcı örnekleridir. Friglerle başlayan bu gelenek, Roma ve Bizans dönemlerinde de kesintisiz sürdürülmüştür. Bu yapısıyla, Frigya’nın Anadolu’da Kappadokya Bölgesinden sonra kaya oluşumları ve mimarisi bakımından en zengin bölge olduğunu söylemek yanlış olmasa gerekir.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1q26v1n.18
Most of the architectural remains from Byzantine Phrygia found by archaeological excavation consist of churches and architectural pieces used in churches. Roman period buildings were converted into churches and new ones were built, as in other regions. There are less known Byzantine period rock-cut churches between Eskişehir, Afyonkarahisar and Kütahya. Although dating the rock-cut structures is not as easy as dating masonry buildings, it seems that most of them belong to the Middle Byzantine period. On the other hand, some can be dated to the Early Byzantine period by virtue of their plan features and architectural elements. To whichever they belong, these churches shows that the rock-cut architectural tradition of Phrygia continued through the Middle Ages. They contain some features which are associated with pre-Christian beliefs, also make them interesting.
In the excavations of the Lycian Olympos, materials found at the aisles of Church No. 3 indicating that such a pavement may have been applied in the opus tessellatum technique on the gallery floors above the aisles. According to the traces that can be seen today, the gallery floors of the church were constructed with timber joists and planks carried by the walls and nave arcades. The beam holes on the walls and the ruins of the nave arcades and galleries clearly show this. Mosaic fragments, tesserae, and subfloor materials which do not belong to the ground floor, were found just below the ruins of the nave arcades at both aisles, and these remains are thought to belong to the floor pavements of wooden constructed galleries.
In this study, it is explained how the mosaic pavements were constructed on the wooden upper floor decks through the findings in Church No. 3 of Olympos with reference to some other examples.
In this study, the structure is documented as it stands today, its construction history is discussed and evaluated in terms of the discipline of Art History by examining the changes that the building has undergone.
Olympos, an ancient city located in the region of Lycia in southwest Anatolia, had an important place through history. The most striking feature observed at Olympos is that the urban texture reflects the Roman, Early Christian and Early Byzantine periods with the transformation attestable. In this paper, the ancient city of Olympos and the city's urban texture of different periods in detail by considering processes of change is intended to reveal the original structure. The main purpose of that study is produced 3D models for Olympos as an reanimation of the city in a virtual environment based on scientific data. The urban texture of Olympos in Roman and Byzantine periods determined much more easily and quickly carried out restitituon with 3D system. So that cultural and architectural heritage of the ancient world and its functions became more clear.
field work undoubtedly affected this growing interest in the region which was not widely acknowledged for its cultural wealth until recently. One of the most important features of the region that is of interest is
that it has been home to many different civilizations uninterruptedly for ages in its natural setting. This accumulation is also related to the region's geographical location. The fact that the Phrygian Region was
an important point of transportation and trade in Anatolia is documented with historical information.
Rock architecture that still exists in the present day can be observed in the tuff accumulations within geological formations. Dating back to prehistoric ages and at times reaching a thickness of 200 meters,
tuff accumulation, as a result of its nature, emerges as different rock shapes with the effects of wind and floods. Carving spaces for various functions in these rock formations begins in the Phrygian period. The Phrygian monuments found in the region are the most striking examples of these accumulations. This tradition that began with the Phrygians continued in the Roman and Byzantine periods. It would be correct to say that Phrygia is the richest region in Anatolia in terms of rock formations and architecture after Cappadocia.
Günümüzde halen varlığını sürdüren kaya mimarisi, jeolojik formasyon içindeki tüf oluşumlarında izlenebilir. Tarih öncesi çağlara uzanan ve kalınlığı yer yer ikiyüz metreyi bulan tüf oluşumu, yapısı gereği rüzgar ve sel sularının etkisiyle farklı kaya şekilleriyle ortaya çıkar. Oluşan bu kaya kütleleri içine farklı işlevde mekânların oyulması Frig döneminde başlar. Bölgede Friglerden kalma anıtlar, bu birikimin en çarpıcı örnekleridir. Friglerle başlayan bu gelenek, Roma ve Bizans dönemlerinde de kesintisiz sürdürülmüştür. Bu yapısıyla, Frigya’nın Anadolu’da Kappadokya Bölgesinden sonra kaya oluşumları ve mimarisi bakımından en zengin bölge olduğunu söylemek yanlış olmasa gerekir.
Noteworthy especially for its cultural assets and natural beauty, the city of Olympos has suffered damage by nature through the centuries accelerated by tourism in the recent years. Therefore, excavations, cleaning, documentation and architectural inventory work of urban plan together with its monuments has been plotted on the topographical map in digital format has been updated. This project was carried out in order to facilitate the foreseen arrangement and restoration programme.The fact that Olympos was not settled by the Turks allowed its medieval urban pattern to be preserved. Being one of the few sites with medieval urban pattern stil preserved, Olympos bears importance for the medieval history of the Mediterranean.
Engin Akyürek-Özgü Çömezoğlu-Ayça Tiryaki-Ali Yamaç-Nilay Karakaya-Mete Mimiroğlu-Ferda Barut-Tolga Uyar-Seçkin Evcim.
Yayına hazırlayan: Oğuz Tanındı
istanbul: Ege Yayınları , 2015. (Türkiye Arkeolojik Yerleşmeleri Projesi)
Belirttiğimiz kapsam ve amaçlar çerçevesinde düzenlenen sempozyumlar dizisinin ikincisi uluslararası boyutta olarak 1-4 Kasım 2013 tarihleri arasında, ev sahibi olan ve 30 Mart 2014 yerel seçimlerinde yeni idari düzenlemeler nedeniyle kapanan Turgutreis Belediyesi’nin destek ve ana sponsorluğunda, Marmara Üniversitesi Tarih Bölümü ve Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Üniversitesi AKMEDAM’ın akademik koordinatörlüğü, Bodrum Kaymakamlığı, Bodrum Belediyesi, Turgutreis Belediyesi Şevket Sabancı Kültür ve Sanat Merkezi, İMEAK Deniz Ticaret Odası Bodrum Şubesi, Bodrum Ticaret Odası ve D-Marin Turgutreis Marina’nın kurumsal ve maddi destekleriyle Akdeniz’in etrafındaki üç kıtanın birçok ülkesinden pek çok akademisyen, araştırmacı ve denizcinin de katılımıyla Turgutreis/BODRUM’da gerçekleştirilmiştir. 2. Turgut Reis Denizcilik Tarihi Uluslararası Sempozyumu’nun dört ana temasının kapsayıcılığında gerçekleştirilen akademik oturumlar “Turgut Reis Araştırmaları I-II”, “Eskiçağ’da Anadolu ve Denizcilik I-II”, “Ortaçağ’da Akdeniz ve Türk Denizciliği”, “Yeniçağ’da Akdeniz ve Türk Denizciliği I-II”, “Yakınçağ’da Akdeniz ve Türk Denizciliği”, “Akdeniz Dünyası ve Korsanlık I-II”, “Cumhuriyet Devri Türk Denizciliği”, “Adalar Denizi (Ege) Oturumu”, “Karadeniz ve Türk Denizciliği”, “Türk Denizciliği Kaynak, Literatür ve Biyografi Araştırmaları”, “Denizcilik Tarihi ve Kültürü”, “Denizcilik Müzeciliği”, “Türk Kültür Tarihinde Su ve Deniz”, “Kültür ve Sanatta Deniz”, “Türk Karasularında Sualtı ve Arkeoloji Araştırmaları I-II”, “Menteşe Bölgesi Tarih Araştırmaları I-II”, “Muğla Yöresi Yerel Kültür Araştırmaları” ve “Bodrum Yöresi Yerel Kültür Araştırmaları” başlıkları altında kategorize edilerek düzenlenmiştir. Ayrıca, UNESCO’nun 2013 yılını, Piri Reis Haritası’nın 500. Yılı münasebetiyle “Piri Reis Yılı” olarak ilan etmesi nedeniyle, bu sempozyumda “Piri Reis’e Vefa Oturumu” da yapılmış, Türk denizciliğine ve coğrafyacılığına yaptığı büyük hizmetler ele alınmıştır. “Söz uçar, yazı kalır” düsturunca her biri emek mahsulü olan sempozyum bildirilerinin tematik olarak tasnifi ile (3 cilt halinde) kitaplaştırılması kararlaştırılmıştır. Bu amaçla tebliğler belli bir format çerçevesinde düzenlenerek değerli bilim insanlarının istifadesine sunulmuştur.
Sempozyumun amaç, kapsam, format ve hedeflerini ilk sempozyumda belirleyen ve bu bakımından sempozyumun fikir babaları olan Prof. Dr. Mim Kemal ÖKE ve Dr. Yusuf Ziya TENGİZ’e, ikinci sempozyumun Düzenleme Kurulu ve Bilim/Danışma Kurulu’nun mümtaz üyelerine; değerli katılım ve desteklerinden dolayı Muğla Valisi Mustafa Hakan GÜVENÇER ve Bodrum Kaymakamı Dr. Mehmet GÖDEKMERDAN’a; sempozyumun ev sahibi Turgutreis Belediye Başkanı Mehmet DİNÇBERK, Turgutreis Belediyesi Yazı İşleri Müdiresi Pembegül YILDIZ, Yaşar TAŞLICALI, Cezmi ÇOBAN, Serhat ERGÜN ve sempozyumun gerçekleştirilmesinde emeği geçen diğer tüm Turgutreis Belediyesi personeline; sempozyuma sağladıkları maddi ve manevi destekten dolayı İMEAK Deniz Ticaret Odası Bodrum Şubesi, Bodrum Ticaret Odası ve D-Marin Turgutreis Marina’ya; otelini ve salonlarını büyük bir misafirperverlikle sempozyuma açan La Blanche Resort & SPA Hotel Genel Müdürü Deniz Taş, Satış Pazarlama Direktörü Pınar Eldem ÇULHAOĞLU ve tüm hotel personeline; sempozyumun Bodrum ve çevresinde duyurulmasında büyük çaba harcayan Radyo Halikarnas Genel Yayın Yönetmeni Ülker İNAN’a, hem sempozyumun gerçekleştirilmesi hem de sempozyum kitabının basılması aşamasındaki gönülden ve özverili çalışmalarından dolayı Araş. Gör. Cihan YEMİŞÇİ, Öğr. Gör. Mustafa Gürbüz BEYDİZ ve Turgutreis Belediyesi Meclis Üyesi Tarık Eray ÇAKIR’a; ilk sempozyumdan itibaren bizlerin yanında olan, varlığı, fikirleri ve yardımları ile destek veren Doç. Dr. Özlem KUMRULAR’a; değerli katılımı, önerileri ve destekleri dolayısıyla Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin 22. Deniz Kuvvetleri Komutanı ve Uluslararası Deniz Tarihi Birliği (IAMS) Başkanı Emekli Oramiral Sn. Metin ATAÇ’a; sempozyum ve bildiri kitabı ile ilgili pek çok konuda fikir ve önerileriyle katkı sağlayan değerli hocalarımız, Prof. Dr. Ali Fuat ÖRENÇ, Prof. Dr. Mehmet Yaşar ERTAŞ, Doç Dr. Yüksel ÇELİK, Arş. Gör. Dr. Hüseyin Sami ÖZTÜRK ve Arş. Gör. Dr. Uğur DEMİR’e teşekkürlerimizi ifade etmeyi borç biliriz.
Aynı zamanda, bu sempozyum kitabının basılmasına emek veren Bodrum Belediyesi personeline; sempozyum kitabının dizgi ve basım işlerini büyük bir titizlikle gerçekleştiren Yunus İLKORUR ve Halikarnas Matbaacılık San. Tic. Ltd. Şti’ne, önümüzdeki yıllarda Turgut Reis Türk Denizcilik Tarihi Sempozyumları dizisini gerçekleştirecek Bodrum Belediyesi’ne; kültür, sanat ve yerel değerlerimizin geliştirilmesini, geniş kitlelere tanıtılmasını her zaman desteklemiş, Bodrum’un ve denizcilik tarihimizin en önemli şahsiyetlerinden biri olan Turgut Reis’e ithafen düzenlenen sempozyum serilerinin devamı için bundan sonraki süreçte de değerli katkı ve desteklerini esirgemeyeceğine inandığımız Bodrum Belediye Başkanı Sn. Mehmet KOCADON’a sonsuz teşekkürlerimizi sunarız.
EDİTÖRLER
Hagios Georgios Church is located in the town center of Osmaneli which is known as Leukai in the Byzantine era and known as Lefke in the Ottoman era. The church which was built between the end of the 19th century and begining of the 20th century, was used probably till the population exchange and left after that. During the Republic of Turkey it had been used as stable, warehouse and shelter. Building has remained till today except it’s roof, gynekaion (women section), stairs and floor coverings. In this study, history and architectural features of Hagios Georgios Church and reasons for existence of its type are taken into consideration.
Although there is abundant information about these groups in relation to their presence in the region of Phyrigia in the Byzantine period, there is no information about their cultural and artistic structure. However, rock architecture (especially as it concerns elements that do not seem to be “Byzantine” in the Byzantine period) may have features related to the diverse belief structures of the region. This paper will introduce and evaluate examples of such material cultural heritage that can be related to minorities in Phrygia during the Byzantine period.
political integrity but, in time, turning into a developed culture around the SakaryaRiver (Sangarios). From the eighth century to the first half of the sixth century BCE,many Phrygian fortresses were established on steep, rocky plateaus that constitutedthe Phrygian highlands.1 The Phrygians built monuments and burial rooms into therocks in the region, consisting of façades, altars, and niches, all dedicated to the MotherGoddess.
identified so far.
Church No. 1 can be evaluated within the cultic structure that evolved from pagan to Christian, which is close to the necropolis areas formed in the Roman period and continued to be used in the early Byzantine period. One of the two basilicas with transepts, the Episcopal Church, named Church No. 2, is located within the temenos area of the Roman temple, which is the main structure of the Bishop’s Palace. Church No. 4 is understood to have been built on an important pagan cult place, like Church No. 2, as it was built adjacent to a cave and on a Roman-era building made of large, finely cut stones located immediately to the north. Church No. 3 is thought to have a religious significance due to its proximity to the temple area and monumental Roman tombs on which it was built.
From the 5th century onwards, the strong organization of the bishopric and the support of the people of Olympos, who were spread over a large territory, for the physical changes of the city for both spiritual and worldly reasons, primarily enabled the Christianization of pagan cult places. The fact that the spaces and arrangements related to relic and martyr cults are found in the churches built on pagan cult places in the northern part of Olympos is not a coincidence; in the 5th century, the cult of relics and martyrs spread rapidly throughout the Mediterranean world and had an impact on the construction of new churches.
With this study, the effects of the Christianization of pagan cult places in early Byzantine period urban transformations are exemplified and evaluated with the information obtained from the excavations and surveys in Olympos.
The city of Polemonion, which continued its existence in the Byzantine Period, was listed as one of the four bishoprics belonging to the Metropolitan See of Neocesarea in the Notitiae Episcopatuum from the 7th to the 13th century, and the names of its seven bishops are known. The only identifiable building that has survived in the centre of Polemonion, whose name appears on portolan charts except for the Byzantine church records, is the katholikon of the Monastery of Saints Constantine and Helena, which has an octagonal plan according to the remains. Since the 1980s, the development in the settlement area has concealed the remains of other buildings mentioned in the sources. Of the two medieval coastal fortresses around the ancient city, the Phadisane Castle, which gave its name to Fatsa, has recently been demolished; the small one to the east, called Bolaman Castle, has survived, albeit transformed into a residential area.
In this study, the historical geography of Bolaman and Fatsa from the Early Byzantine period to the Ottoman period is summarised, and the history of the settlement is discussed with the change-transformation processes in the light of historical sources, especially travelogues, and the ruins that have survived to the present day.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Döşeme Teknikleri, Ahşap Kat Üzerine Mozaik Döşeme, Contignatio, Olympos, Erken Bizans Bazilikası.
Eng: In this study, it is explained how the mosaic pavements were constructed on the wooden upper floor decks through the findings in Church No. 3 of Olympos with reference to some other examples.
Keywords: Flooring Methods, Mosaic Pavement on Wooden Floor, Contignatio, Olympos, Early Byzantine Basilica.