[go: up one dir, main page]
Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Analysis of Landslides Triggered by the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, Nepal

  • Conference paper
  • First Online:
Living Under the Threat of Earthquakes

Part of the book series: Springer Natural Hazards ((SPRINGERNAT))

  • 1103 Accesses

Abstract

On 25 April 2015, 7.8 Mw earthquake “Gorkha earthquake” struck central Nepal. Its epicenter was located 77 km northwest of Kathmandu near Barpak village in Gorkha District. The focus of the Gorkha earthquake was at a depth of approx. 15 km (considered shallow and therefore more damaging). On May 12, 2015, a major aftershock of 7.3 Mw followed the main shock. The Gorkha earthquake and its aftershocks caused thousands of human casualties and extensive damages, and triggered a large number of landslides of various types, including highly disrupted shallow slides, rock falls, and large-scale avalanches. An avalanche at Mount Everest killed at least 19 and another huge avalanche in the Langtang Valley killed about 350 people. The widespread landslides occurrence is posing a great threat to post-earthquake reconstruction. Field investigations and image interpretation identified thousands of landslides in affected districts of central Nepal. This provides a basis for better understanding and illustrating the distribution pattern of landslides triggered by the Gorkha earthquake and of the hazards related to them. The coseismic landslides were analyzed with respect to landslide causing and triggering factors, in order to characterize the spatial characteristics of landslides and to highlight the future hazard and risk. Slope angle and geology are the most significant parameters and potential ground acceleration values reflect an anomalous correlation with respect to landslide locations. The frequency ratio method was adopted for landslide susceptibility or hazard modelling. A landslide hazard map was generated and classified into five categories: very low, low, medium, high, and very high. 39.1% of the most affected areas belongs to very low and low classes with corresponding 5.9% of the inventoried landslides. Medium hazard zone makes up 37.1% of the area with 29.7% of the landslides. The rest of the area is classified into high and very high levels, which makes up 23.7% of the area with corresponding 64.3% of the total landslides. The verification of results indicates satisfactory agreement between the presumptive hazard map and the existing data on landslide locations. Consequently, there is a good correlation between areas defined as representing “high” hazard and the known landslides. The hazard map not only reveals the likelihood of future landslides and debris flows. It is also helpful for the relocation of displaced people and for reconstruction strategies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ader T, Avouac J-P, Liu-Zeng J, Lyon-Caen H, Bollinger L, Galetzka J, Genrich J, Thomas M, Chanard K, Sapkota SN, Rajaure S, Shrestha P, Ding L, Flouzat M (2012) Convergence rate across the Nepal Himalaya and interseismic coupling on the Main Himalayan Thrust: implications for seismic hazard. J Geophys Res 117(B04403). doi:10.1029/2011JB009071

  • Amatya KM, Jnawali BM (1994) Geological map of Nepal, Scale:1:1,000,000. Department of Mines and Geology, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Carl Duisberg Gesellschaft e. V., and United Nations Environment Programme

    Google Scholar 

  • Ambraseys, NN, Douglas, J (2004) Magnitude calibration of north Indian earthquakes. Geophys J Int 159:165–206. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02323.x

  • Andermann C, Behling R, Cook KL, Emberson R, Hovius N, Marc O, Motagh M, Roessner S, Sens-Schoenfelder C, Turowski JM (2015) Landscape response to the Mw 7.9 Gorkha earthquake. Geol Soc Am Abstr Programs 47(7):105–112, abstract

    Google Scholar 

  • Angster S, Fielding EJ, Wesnousky S, Pierce I, Chamlagain D, Gautam D, Upreti BN, Kumahara Y, Nakata T (2015) Field Reconnaissance after the 25 April 2015 M 7.8 Gorkha Earthquake. Seismol Res Lett 86(6):1506–1513. doi:10.1785/0220150135

  • Avouac J-P (2003) Mountain building, erosion and the seismic cycle in the Nepal Himalaya. Adv Geophys 46:1–80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baeza C, Lantada N, Moya J (2010) Validation and evaluation of two multivariate statistical models for predictive shallow landslide susceptibility mapping of the Eastern Pyrenees (Spain). Environ Earth Sci 61:507–523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bettinelli P, Avouac, JP, Flouzat M, Jouanne, F, Bollinger L, Willis P, Chitrakar GR (2006) Plate motion of India and interseismic strain in the Nepal Himalaya from GPS and DORIS measurements. J Geodesy 80(8–11):567–589. doi:10.1007/s00190-006-0030-3

  • Bilham R (2004) Earthquakes in India and the Himalaya: tectonics, geodesy and history. Ann Geophys 47:839–858. doi:10.4401/ag-3338

  • Bilham R (2015) Raising Kathmandu. Nat Geosci 8:582–584

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bilham R, Larson K, Freymuller J (1997) GPS measurements of present-day convergence across the Nepal Himalaya. Nature 386:61–64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carrara A, Cardinali M, Guzzetti F, Reichenbach P (1995) GIS-based techniques for mapping landslide hazard. In: Carrara A, Guzzetti F (eds) Geographical information systems in assessing natural hazards, pp 135–176

    Google Scholar 

  • CEDIM (Center for Disaster Management and Risk Reduction Technology). http://www.cedim.de/

  • Chen Y, Cao LXZ, Hou L, Sun R, Dong L, Wang W, Meng F, Chen H (2009) Liquefaction macrophenomena in the great Wenchuan earthquake. Earthq Eng Eng Vib 8(2):219–229. doi:10.1007/s11803-009-9033-4

  • Chou HT, Lee CF, Chen, SC (2013) The collapse process of Granular slopes under seismic forcing. In: Ugai K, Yagi H, Wakai A (eds) Earthquake-induced landslides: proceedings of the international symposium on earthquake-induced landslides, pp 45–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Chung CF, Fabbri AG (2003) Validation of spatial prediction models for landslide hazard mapping. Nat Hazards 30:451–472

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chung CF, Fabbri, AG, van Westen CJ (1995) Multivariate regression analysis for landslide hazard zonation. In: Carrara A, Guzzetti F (eds) Geographic information systems in assessing natural hazards, pp 107–133

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins BD, Jibson RW (2015) Assessment of existing and potential landslide hazards resulting from the April 25, 2015 Gorkha, Nepal earthquake sequence. U.S. geological survey open file report 2015-1142, Reston, VA

    Google Scholar 

  • Dhital MR, Khanal N, Thapa KB (1993) The role of extreme weather events, mass movements, and land use changes in increasing natural hazards. A Report of the preliminary field assessment and workshop on causes of recent damage incurred in south-central Nepal, July 19–20 1993. ICIMOD publication, Kathmandu

    Google Scholar 

  • Galetzka J, Melgar D, Genrich JF, Geng J, Owen S, Lindsey EO, Xu X, Bock Y, Avouac J-P, Adhikari LB, Upreti, BN, Pratt-Sitaula B, Bhattarai TN, Sitaula BP, Moore A, Hudnut KW, Szeliga W, Normandeau, J, Fend M, Flouzat M, Bollinger L, Shrestha P, Koirala B, Gautam U, Bhatterai M, Gupta R, Kandel T, Timsina C, Sapkota SN, Rajaure S, Maharjan N (2015) Slip pulse and resonance of the Kathmandu basin during the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, Nepal. Science 349(6252):1091–1095. doi:10.1126/science.aac6383

  • Gallen SF, Clark MK, Niemi N, Lupker M, Gajurel AP, West AJ, Lowe K, Roback K (2015) Coseismic landslide hazards and geomorphic consequences of the Mw 7.8 Gorkha earthquake, Nepal. Geol Soc Am Abstr Programs 47(7):105–111, abstract

    Google Scholar 

  • GEER (2015) Geotechnical Field Reconnaissance: Gorkha (Nepal) Earthquake of April 25 2015 and Related Shaking Sequence. Geotechnical Extreme Event Reconnaissance (GEER), GEER Association Report No. GEER-040. Version 1.0

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorum T, Fan X, van Westen CJ, Huang RQ, Xu Q, Tang C, Wang G (2011) Distribution pattern of earthquake-induced landslides triggered by the 12 May 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. Geomorphology 133:152–167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grandin R, Vallée M, Satriano C, Lacassin R, Klinger Y, Simoes M, Bollinger L (2015) Rupture process of the Mw = 7.9 2015 Gorkha earthquake (Nepal): insights into Himalayan megathrust segmentation. Geophys Res Lett. doi:10.1002/2015GL066044

  • Gnyawali KR, Maka S, Adhikari, BR, Chamlagain D, Duwal S, Dhungana AR (2016) Spatial implications of earthquake induced landslides triggered by the april 25 Gorkha earthquake Mw 7.8: preliminary analysis and findings. International conference on earthquake engineering and post disaster reconstruction planning, Bhaktapur, Nepal, pp 50–58

    Google Scholar 

  • Harp EL, Keefer DK, Sato HP, Yagi H (2011) Landslide inventories: the essential part of seismic hazard analyses. Eng Geo 122:9–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jibson RW, Harp EL, Schulz W, Keefer DK (2006) Large rock avalanches triggered by the M 7.9 Denali fault, Alaska, earthquake of 3 November 2002. Eng Geol 83:144–160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kargel JS, Leonard GJ, Shugar DH, Haritashya UK, Bevington A, Fielding EJ, Fujita K, Geertsema, M, Miles ES, Steiner J, Anderson E, Bajracharya S, Bawden GW, Breashears,DF, Byers A, Collins B, Dhital MR, Donnellan A, Evans TL, Geai ML, Glasscoe MT, Green D, Gurung DR, Heijenk R, Hilborn A, Hudnut K, Huyck C, Immerzeel WW, Liming J, Jibson R, Kääb A, Khanal NR, Kirschbaum D, Kraaijenbrink PDA, Lamsal D, Shiyin L, Mingyang LV, McKinney D, Nahirnick NK, Zhuotong N, Ojha S, Olsenholler J, Painter TH, Pleasants M, KC P, Yuan Q, Raup BH, Regmi D, Rounce DR, Sakai A, Donghui S, Shea JM, Shrestha AB, Shukla A, Stumm D, van der Kooij M, Voss K, Xin W, Weihs B, Wolfe D, Lizong W, Xiaojun Y, Yoder MR, Young N (2016) Geomorphic and geologic controls of geohazards induced by Nepal’s 2015 Gorkha earthquake. Science 351 (6269). doi:10.1126/science.aac8353

  • Keefer DK (1994) The importance of earthquake-induced landslides to long-term erosion and slope-failure hazards in seismically active areas. Geomorphology 10(1):265–284

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keefer DK (2002) Investigating landslides caused by earthquakes—a historical review. Surv Geophys 23:473–510. doi:10.1023/A:1021274710840

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korup O, Clague JJ (2009) Natural hazards, extreme events, and mountain topography. Quater Sci Rev 28:977–990

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lacroix P (2016) Landslides triggered by the Gorkha earthquake in the Langtang valley, volumes and initiation processes. Earth, Planets and Space 68:46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lacroix P, Berthier E, Taipe Maquerhua E (2015) Earthquake-driven acceleration of slow-moving landslides in the Colca valley, Peru, detected from Pléiades images. Remote Sens Environ 165:148–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lin CW, Shieh CL, Yuan BD, Shieh YC, Liu SH, Lee SY (2004) Impact of Chi-Chi earthquake on the occurrence of landslides and debris flows; example from the Chenyulan River watershed, Nantou. Taiwan. Eng Geo 71(1–2):49–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsey EO, Natsuaki R, Xu X, Shimada M, Hashimoto M, Melgar D, Sandwell DT (2015) Line of sight displacement from ALOS-2 interferometry: Mw 7.8 Gorkha earthquake and Mw 7.3 aftershock. Geophys Res Lett 42:6655–6661

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luzi L, Pergalani F (1996) A methodology for slope instability zonation using a probabilistic method.—Actas VI Congreso Nacional y ConferenciaInternacional de GeologiaAmbiental y OrdenaciondelTerritorio 1:537–556

    Google Scholar 

  • Martha TR, Roy PI, Mazumdar R, Govindharaj KB, Kumar KV (2016) Spatial characteristics of landslides triggered by the 2015 Mw 7.8 (Gorkha) and Mw 7.3 (Dolakha) earthquakes in Nepal. Landslides. doi:10.1007/s10346-016-0763-x

  • Meunier P, Hovius N, Haines AJ (2007) Regional patterns of earthquake-triggered landslides and their relation to ground motion. Geophys Res Lett 34:L20408. doi:10.1029/2007GL031337

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molden D, Sharma E, Acharya G (2016) Lessons from Nepal’s Gorkha Earthquake 2015. In: Shingh SP, Khanal SC, Joshi M (eds) Lessons from Nepal’s Earthquake for the Indian Himalayas and the Gangetic Plains, Central Himalayan Environment Association (CHEA):1–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Molnar P (1986) The geologic history and structure of the Himalaya. Am Sci 74:114–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Moss RES, Thompson EM, Kieffer DS, Tiwari B, Hashash YMA, Acharya I, Adhikari BR, Asimaki D, Clahan KB, Collins BD, Dahal S, Jibson RW, Khadka D, Macdonald A, Madugo CLM, Mason HB, Pehlivan M, Rayamajhi D, Uprety S (2015) Geotechnical Effects of the 2015 Magnitude 7.8 Gorkha, Nepal, Earthquake and Aftershocks. Seismol Res Lett 86(6):1514–1523. doi:10.1785/0220150158

  • Nakata T (1982) A photogrammetric study on active faults, in the Nepal Himalayas. Jour Nepal Geol Soc 2:67–80

    Google Scholar 

  • NPC (2015a) Post disaster needs assessment. Key findings. Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission (NPC), Kathmandu, Nepal, vol A

    Google Scholar 

  • NPC (2015b) Post disaster needs assessment: sector reports. Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission (NPC), Kathmandu, Nepal, vol B

    Google Scholar 

  • NSC (2016) National Seismological Center (NSC), Department of Mines and Geology, Kathmandu, Nepal. http://www.seismonepal.gov.np/

  • Ogata Y (1988) Statistical models for earthquake occurrences and residual analysis for point processes. Jour Amer Stat Assoc 83:9–27. doi:10.1080/01621459.1988.10478560

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ohja TP, DeCelles PG (2015) Landslide distribution before and after the 2015 Gorkha earthquakes in central Nepal: relationships with dip slopes and villages. Geological Soc Am Abstr Programs 47(7):105–110, abstract

    Google Scholar 

  • Olyazadeh R, Sudmeier-Rieux K, Jaboyedoff M, Derron M-H, Devkota S (2016) An offline-online WebGIS android application for fast data acquisition of landslide hazard and risk. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci Discuss. doi:10.5194/nhess-2016-267

    Google Scholar 

  • Petley D (2015) Landslides in Nepal and the impact of the SW Monsoon. AGU, the Landslide blog. http://blogs.agu.org/landslideblog/2015/05/18/nepal-and-the-sw-monsoon-1/

  • Rosser N, Densmore A, Oven K (2016) Landslides following the 2015 Gorkha earthquake: monsoon 2016. Earthquakes without Frontiers (EWF) blog Post. http://ewf.nerc.ac.uk/2016/06/15/landslides-following-2015-gorkha-earthquake-monsoon-2016/

  • Schwanghart W, Bernhardt A, Stolle A, Hoelzmann P, Adhikari BR, Andermann C, Tofelde S, Merchel S, Rugel G, Fort M, Korup O (2016) Repeated catastrophic valley infill following medieval earthquakes in the Nepal Himalaya. Science. doi:10.1126/science.aac9865

    Google Scholar 

  • Shieh CL, Chen YS, Tsai YJ, Wu JH (2009) Variability in rainfall threshold for debris flow after the Chi-Chi earthquake in central Taiwan, China. Int J Sediment Res 24:177–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shrestha, AB, Bajracharya, SR, Kargel, JS, Khanal NR (2016) The impact of Nepal’s 2015 Gorkha Earthquake-induced geohazards. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Research Report 2016/1

    Google Scholar 

  • Tajika J, Fukami H, Okazaki N, Ozawa S, Endo Y, Kurosawa K, Ohtsu S, Ishimaru S, Akita F (1994a) Ground failures and disasters caused by the 1993 Kushiro-oki earthquake. Geological Survey of Hokkaido special report 23, Sapporo, Japan

    Google Scholar 

  • Tajika J, Ito Y, Ishimaru S, Hirota T (1994b) Slope movements in Nemuro-Kushiro Region. In: Ground disasters caused by the Hokkaido Toho-oki earthquake of October, 1994, Geological Survey of Hokkaido special report 25:81–94, Sapporo, Japan

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang C, Zhu J, Li W (2009) Rainfall-triggered debris flows following the Wenchuan earthquake. Bull Eng Geol Environ 68:187–194

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thapa PB (2015) Occurrence of landslides in Nepal and their mitigation options. J Nepal Geol Soc 49:17–28

    Google Scholar 

  • UN-OCHA (2015) United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA). http://www.unocha.org/nepal

  • Van Westen CJ, Castellanos E, Kuriakose SL (2008) Spatial data for landslide susceptibility, hazard, and vulnerability assessment: an overview. Eng Geo 102:112–131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Varnes DJ (1984) Landslide hazard zonation: a review of principles and practice. UNESCO Press, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Wartman J, Dunham L, Tiwari B, Pradel D (2013) Landslides in eastern Honshu induced by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake. Bull Seismol Soc Am 103(2B):1503–1521

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Witze A (2015) Mappers rush to pinpoint landslide risk in Nepal. Nature 521:133–134. doi:10.1038/521133a

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu C, Xu X, Yu G (2013) Landslides triggered by slipping-fault generated earthquake on a plateau: an example of the 14 April 2010, Ms 7.1, Yushu, China earthquake. Landslides 10:421–431

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yin Y, Wang F, Sun P (2009) Landslide hazards triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan, China. Landslides 6:139–152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu B, Wu Y, Chu S (2014) Preliminary study of the effect of earthquakes on the rainfall threshold of debris flows. Eng Geo 182:130–135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang L, Li J, Liao W, Wang Q (2016) Source rupture process of the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal Mw7.9 earthquake and its tectonic implications. Geode Geodyn 7(2):124–131

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author is thankful to a reviewer who provided very constructive comments to improve the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geology, Tri-Chandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

    Prem Bahadur Thapa

Authors
  1. Prem Bahadur Thapa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Prem Bahadur Thapa .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil, Geo and Environmental Engineering, Technische Universität München, München, Germany

    Jörn H. Kruhl

  2. Research Center for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

    Rameshwar Adhikari

  3. Department for Civil- and Environmental Engineering, Universität Kassel, Kassel, Germany

    Uwe E. Dorka

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG

About this paper

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this paper

Thapa, P.B. (2018). Analysis of Landslides Triggered by the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, Nepal. In: Kruhl, J., Adhikari, R., Dorka, U. (eds) Living Under the Threat of Earthquakes. Springer Natural Hazards. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68044-6_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics