Physica electromagnetica
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Physica electromagnetica de campo electromagnetico et effectu suo in particulas onus electricum habentes tractat. Theoria Maxwelliana vim electricam et vim magneticam in formam theoriae relativitatis speciali congruentem unit. Aequationes Maxwellianae per se describunt campum electricum et campum magneticum et eorum causam imperfectam in particulis onus habentibus. Aequatio Lorentziana vim in particulas onus habentes a campis electricis magneticisque effectam describit. Aequationes Maxwellianae in vacuo sunt basis doctrinae lucis electromagneticae in quo celeritas lucis
in vacuo esse praecinitur.
Notiones fundamentales physicae electromagneticae
[recensere | fontem recensere]- Aether physicus
- Campus physicus
- Celeritas lucis
- Fluxus magneticus
- Fluxus oneris electrici
- Onus electricum
- Principium relativitatis
- Productum interius
- Productum vectoriale
- Radiatio electromagnetica
- Systema coordinatarum
- Tensio electrica
- Vix motrix
Historia
[recensere | fontem recensere]Theoria electromagnetica historiam longam ab antiquitate usque ad hodiernam diem habet. Ex perantiquitate totus mundus de fulminibus scivit. Seres antiqui circum 400 a.C.n. de magnetismo in libro Liber magistris vallis diaboli (鬼谷子) aiunt: "Magnes facit ferrum venire vel ferrum attrahit."[1] Et circum annum 1200 notatur Seres pyxibus magneticis ad navigandum uti.[2]
Opera Guilielmi Gilbert et Beniaminis Franklin
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Gulielmus Gilbert anno 1600 in magna opera, De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure,[3] imprimis fortiter disputabat magnetismum ab electricitate dissimile esse. Pro evidentia, Gilbertus monstrabat, cum temperatura augmentetur, quasdam attractiones electricas evanescere donec alias magneticas manere. Sua distinctio inter electricitatem et magnetismum 250 annos progressus scientiae maxime ingreditur. Gilbertus in eadem opera proposuit tellurem propium esse magnem ingentem, quod efficit pyxes nauticas ad borealem indicare. Antea vel stella Polaris vel insula magnetica boreale sita putabantur pyxes attrahere. Ipse quoque primitus verbum electricitas introduxit a verbo Graeco ήλεκτρον (electron), quae 'glaesum' (sive succinum) significat, materiem quod proprietates significativas electrostaticas habet.[4]
Beniaminus Franklin circum annum 1750 elecricitatem staticam investigavit.[5] Sua experimenta milvis fulmina investigantia notitiam alteri physici attraxerunt. Franklin doctrinam proposuit notam in quo electricitas constat in fluido simplice qui est in materia aut in superfluo +, aut in carentia –. Hi typi sunt origo hodierni usus signorum + et – ad onera electrica designanda.[6]
Opera Caroli Coulomb et Caroli Gauss
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Anno 1785, Carolus Coulomb suas tres operas experimentales de electricitate magnetismoque provulgavit,[7] in quibus nuntiavit invenire vim electricam inter duas particulas onus electricum habentes esse vi gravitatis simile, reciproce ut quadrata distantiae inter particulas, proportionale quantitatibus eorum onerum electricorum in coniunctim, et directam secundum lineam inter particulas. Forma vectorali unitatibus MKSA scripta, lex Coulombiana est:
ubi
- est vis electrica in particula 1 ob particulam 2,
- est campus electricus in particulae 1 loco ob particulam 2,
- q1 et q2 sunt onera electrica particularum 1 et 2,
- est distantia inter particulas 1 et 2,
- est directio ad particulam 1 a particula 2, et
- est constans electricus.
Ioannes Carolus Fridericus Gauss, mathematicus et scientiarum doctus, anno 1813 theorema de campis legem quadraticam inversam habentibus formulavit,[8] quae est casus proprii theorematis hodierni post Georgium Stokes nominatae.[9] Applicantes theorema Gauss ad legem Coulombianam, legem obtinemus Gaussianam electrostaticam forma differentiale hodierna:
ubi est densitas oneris electrici ob varias particulas onus habentes complexas, et est campus electricus universus ex illis particulis.
Opera Iohannis Oersted, Iohannis Baptiste Biot, Felicis Savart, Andreae Ampere
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Circum annum 1820 Ioannes Christianus Oersted, Ioannes Baptista Biot, Felix Savart et Andreas Marie Ampere, vim magneticam in filis fluxiones electricas habentibus ob fluxiones electricas in filis complexis investigantes, confirmaverunt legem magneticam legi Coulomb similem.[10] Secundum hanc legem, forma vectorali unitatibus MKSA scriptam, vis magnetica in segmento fili 1 differentiale ob fluxiones in segmento fili 2 differentiale est:
ubi
- est vector quod longitudinem segmenti fili 1 differentialem et directionem fluxionis ipsius coniunctim dat,
- est campus magneticus in segmenti 1 loco ob fluxionem electricum in segmento 2,
- et sunt fluxiones electricae in quoque duorum segmentorum filorum,
- est distantia inter segmenta differentialia 1 et 2,
- est directio ad segmenti 1 positionem a segmenti 2 positione,
- est productum vectoriale sive productum crucis, et
- est constans magneticus.
Circum annum 1850 ob labores Georgii Stokes Guilielmique Thomson theorema Stokesianum inventa fuit,[11] quae nos sinit transformare legem Biot-Savart ad legem formam differentialem hodiernam post Andream Ampere nominatam[12]:
ubi est densitas fluxionis ob filos fluxionem habentes complexos et est campus magneticus universus ex illis fluxionibus.
Opera Michaelis Faraday
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Quamquam ad leges Coulomb et Biot-Savart ascribendas campos magneticos electricosque utimur, notio camporum per se primitus concepta est a Michaelo Faraday, Professore Chemiae in Fulleriano Instituto Regali Britanniarum, qui annos 1820-1873 magnopere physicam electromagneticam chemiamque aggreditur.[13] Antea, vires electricas magneticasque putabantur esse actiones trans distantias virium gravitatis Newtonianarum similes, sed Faraday theoriam protulit omnes vires esse ob campos qui spatium complent. Ad illos campos describendos, Faraday notionem lineae camporum comminiscit et postea demonstravit lineas magneticas, quae legi Amperi parent et fontes carent, solum per spatium circulare.[14] Applicantes igitur theorema Gauss ad campos magneticos fontes carentes obtinemus legem Gauss magneticam[15]:
Faraday quoque theoriam protulit omnem campum esse idos uni campi universali. Ad hoc hypothesim arguendum quaesivit igitur quomodo transformare inter vires camposque gravitatis, electricitatis, et magnetismi. Et demum Faraday repperit quomodo vim magneticam ad electricam transformare. Campus magneticus commutatus campum electricum creat secundum legem Faraday, quae in forma vectorali-differentiali et in unitatibus MKSA est:
ubi est portio campi electrici a campo magnetico commutante creata.[16] Hoc inductantiae electromagneticae principium utile est basis pro omnibus generatris et motris electricis.
Theoria Iacobi Maxwell et opera Henrici Hertz
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Iacobus Maxwell, qui Michaelem Faraday maxime miratus est,[17] varias camporum electromagneticorum aequationes in systemate rationale postea aequationes Maxwellianas appellato ordinavit.[18] In symmetria? cum Faraday, Maxwell proposuit correctionem ad legem Amperianam necesse esse, in quo campus magneticus commutans campum electricum creat. Forma vectorali unitatibus MKSA modo scripta, lex Amperiana a Maxwell correcta igitur est:
Statim anno 1861, Maxwell agnovit hanc correctionem in aliarum aequationum electromagneticarum contextu undas electromagneticas significare.[19] Quia ex aequationibus Maxwellianis in vacuo lucis velocitas variaeque proprietates lucis undis similes praecinitur, Maxwell putabat undas electromagneticas ipsas esse lucem. Demum anno 1887, Henricus Hertz per experimenta ingeniosa electromagneticam lucis naturam confirmavit.[20]
Opera Iosephi Thomson et Hendrici Lorentz
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Quamquam fulminae et fluxiones prius investigatae erant, natura earum aliquanto in dubio manebat. Eratne electricitas fluidus vel particulae vel fluxio ex aethere? Per experimenta radios cathodicos investigantes cum lagoenis evacuatis Iosephus Ioannes Thomson anno 1897 tandem indentificavit radios cathodicos et electricitatem compositos esse ex particulis minimis onus negativum massamque habentibus quas hodie appellamus electrones,[21] nomen anno 1881 a Georgio Johnstone Stoney propositum pro minima onus electrici quantitate.[22] Ad argumentum Iosephi Thomson confirmandum, Robertus A. Millikan anno 1909 onus electricum electronis diligenter metitur et determinavit:[23]
- .
Antea, omnes leges physicae interpretatae erant ex perspectiva virium inter corpora tangibilia vel inter corpora et aetherem, sed annos 1890-1905 physici conantur leges interpretare ex perspectiva virium inter particulas elementarias vel subatomicas sicut electrones quae materiam tangibilem constituent. Eos annos Hendricus Lorentz hypothesim facit omnes fluxiones electricas esse ob particularum onus habentium motum et proposuit legem Lorentzianam vim electromagneticam dare in eas particulas elementarias.[24] In unitatibus MKSA, sua lex est:
ubi est particulae elementariae onus q habentis velocitas momentanea relativa aetheri immobili. Sua theoria electronica multas materiae proprietates fideliter praecinit inclusas eas relativisticas, e.g., inter alia, contractionem Fitzgerald-Lorentz.[25]
Theoria relativitatis, effectum photoelectricum et opera Alberti Einstein
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Hendricus Lorentz in sua theoria electromagnetica postulabat systema coordinatorum existere aetheri immobili affixa, sed anno 1903 Lorentz invenit omnes transformationes coordinatorum inter systemata inertialia asservare totas aequationes Maxwellianas sine quaquam commutatione. [26] Sua theoria deprehensionem aetheris absolute vetabat. Celeritas lucis, exempli gratia, videtur identica? in omnibus systematibus coordinatorum inertialibus.
Tandem anno 1905 Albertus Einstein comperit sola duo axiomata satis et necesse esse ad transformationes Lorentz derivandas[27]: principium relativitatis a Galilaeo Galilaei primitus formulatum[28] et constantia celeritatis lucis in omnibus systematibus coordinatorum inertialibus ab Alberto Michelson et Eduardo Morlei anno 1887 rescita.[29] Demum Einstein statuit theoriam relativitatis specialis demonstrando transformationes Lorentz fundamentaliores esse quam aequationes Maxwellianae et monstrando varias emendationes mechanicae Newtonianae necesse esse.[30] Ex illa perspectiva relativistica campus magneticus ex campo electrico naturaliter oritur ob systematis coordinatorum motum.
Quia Lorentz monstraverat nemo aetherem deprehendere posse, Einstein abnuit postulare aetherem existire et potius demonstavit lucem compositum esse ex photonibus quae particulae pro motu suo aetherem non requirunt.[31] Secundum theoriam Einstein photonicam energia E photonis est:
ubi f est frequentia undae electromagneticae associatae et constans Planckis . Notio photonium multas res explicabat, effectum photoelectricum ab Hendrice Hertz et Phillippe Lenard repertum inclusum.[32]
Theoria camporum quantica
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Imprimis Einstein negabat aetherem existire, sed mox circum annum 1920 Einstein ipse invenit ideam aetheris necesse esse pro una theoria relativitatis generalis satisfactoria cum interactionibus localibus et sine actionibus trans distantias. [33] Einsteini aether simpliciter erat sedes campi electromagnetici gravitatisque et compositum erat nec ex materia nec ex partibus positionem distinctam habentibus. Mox quoque post experimentum Geiger-Marsden,[34] physicus Ernestus Rutherford invenit theoriam Maxwellianam Lorentzianamque insatis esse ad electrones in atomos discribendam quia cum sola ea theoria electrones in nucleum cadendum sunt.[35] Ergo mechanica quantica nascitur ut nova principia reperiantur.[36]
Paulus Dirac, cuius magnum opus Principia Mechanicae Quanticae (Anglice The Principles of Quantum Mechanics) anno 1930 divulgatum est,[37] primam theoriam electrodynamicae quanticae creavit in quo photones repraesentant minimas quantitates energiae quas campus electromagneticus dat et capit. Qui, photonicam Einsteinis notionem per suam doctrinam explicans, comperit energias possibiles? in campo electromagnetico esse:
ubi n est numerus integrus photonium in campo electromagnetico. Postmodo Richardus Feynman, Freeman Dyson, Julianus Schwinger, et Sin-Itiro Tomonaga theoriam electrodynamicae quanticae annos 1940 magnopere promoverunt creando primam theoriam adusque satisfactoriam in quo electrones, positrones, et photones ex aethere (sive campo quantico) creantur et delentur.[38] Itaque physici inveniunt particulis opus esse et campi et aetheri ut eorum vires fiantur. Differentia inter suam aetherem et Lorentzianam in status motus non potendo constabat.
Dirac habetur conditor electrodynamicae quanticae, primus qui id vocabulo usus est. Notionem polarizationis vacui decennio 194 ineunte introduxit.
Unitates in aequationibus electromagneticis
[recensere | fontem recensere]Omnes systemata mensurae metrica basim habent in unitatibus metri, chiliogrammatis et secundi, qui sunt usitati. Differentes autem systemata fieri possunt, in cuius definitione aequationes electromagneticae pars maior habent.
Systema Unitatium Hodiernum MKSA
[recensere | fontem recensere]Systema metricum Internationale (sive SI sive MKSA) circum annum 1960 creata[39] habet unitates cuius magnitudines pro mensura laboratoriale sunt utiles.
Inter suas unitates principales sunt: metrum (m), chiliogramma (kg), secundum (s), et Amperium (A).[40] Fluxionis electricae unitas Amperium definitur postulando constantem magneticum in legem Biot-Savart esse accurate
- .
Oneris electrici unitas Coulombium tunc ex fluxionis unitate Amperio definitur sicut quantum oneris electrici in unum secundum movet si fluxio electrica est unum Amperium, e. g. . Unitas campi magnetici Tesla (T) quoque definitur ut
et ut vis Lorentz scripta sit
- .
Systema Unitatium Antiguum Gaussianum CGSF
[recensere | fontem recensere]Systema metricum Gaussianum (sive Gaussianum sive CGSF) est antiguum systema circum annum 1874 creatum.[41] Multi physici etiam hodie systema Gaussianum malunt quia id habet unitates identicas? pro campis magneticis et campis electris, quod est magis utile ad theoriam electromagneticam relativisticamque describendam.
Systema Gaussianum CGSF sex unitates primarias habet; [42] inter principales earum sunt: centimetrum (cm), gramma (g), secundum (s), et Franklin (Fr). Oneris electrici unitas Franklin (appellata quoque esu pro "electrostatica unitate") definitur postulando constantem electricam in legem Coulomb esse accurate
et unitas fluxionis est igitur Fr/s. Etiam unitas campi magnetici Gauss (G)
definitur ut campus electricus commensurabilis cum campo magnetico sit, et vis Lorentziana scripta sit
ubi c est celeritas lucis. Ob eam definitionem, aequationes Maxwellianae in formam simpliorem tranformantur atque lex Ampere a Maxwell correcta simpliciter fit:
Notae
[recensere | fontem recensere]- ↑ Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Iul., 1954), p. 175.
- ↑ Ex pagina en:Compass abstracta: Zhu Yu, Pingzhou Table Talks (Pingzhou Ke Tan) anno 1117 Anglice edita: "The navigator knows the geography, he watches the stars at night, watches the sun at day; when it is dark and cloudy, he watches the compass."
- ↑ Vide etiam situm Anglice "De Magnete" appellatum et paginam "400 Years of "De Magnete": Commemorating the 400th anniversary of "De Magnete" by William Gilbert of Colchester," a David P. Stern scriptam.
- ↑ Verbum electricitas et sua origo in verbo Graeco 'electron' pervestigata sunt in paginis 31–33 commentarii "Notes on the De Magnete of D. William Gilbert," a Silvano P. Thompson et aliis scripti, Londoninii 1901 editi, et in "On the Magnet by William Gilbert,"' a Derek J. Price scripto (Novi Eboraci: Basic Books, 1958) iterum prolati.
- ↑ "Experiments and Observations on Electricity made at Philadelphia in America by Benjamin Franklin, L. L. D. and F. R. S.", F. Newbery, London, M.DCC.LXXIV"; vide etiam commentarium "400 Years of "Benjamin Franklin and Lightning Rods," a E. Philip Krider scriptum.
- ↑ "Hence have arisen some new terms among us: we say B,(and bodies like circumstanced) is electrified positively; A, negatively. Or rather, B. is electrified plus; A, minus." Beniaminus Franklin in alteris litteris ad Petro Collinson missis, Letter II from Benjamin Franklin, Esq.; in Philadelphia to Peter Collinson, Esq.; F. R. S. London, 1747.
- ↑ C.-A. Coulomb, "Premier Mémoire sur l’Electricité et le Magnétisme," Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, 569–577, 1785; "Sécond Mémoire sur l’Electricité et le Magnétisme," Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, 578–611, 1785; "Troisième Mémoire sur l’Electricité et le Magnétisme," Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, 612–638, 1785. Vide etiam "Collection de mémoires relatifs à la physique, . . . Tome I. Mémoires de Coulomb," p. 146, ubi Coulomb recapitulavit: "Que l'action, soit répulsive, soit attractive de deux globes électrisés et, par conséquent, de deux molécules électriques, est en raison composée des densités du fluide électrique des deux molécules électrisées et inverse du carré des distances."
- ↑ Carolus Fridericus Gauss, "Theoria attractionis corporum sphaeroidicorum ellipticorum homogeneorum, Martii 1813, in "Werke Sammlung Mathematische Physik, ABHANDLUNGEN Band Bd. 5, paginis 3-24 apud Universitaetsbibliothek Goettingen - Digitalisierungszentrum
- ↑ "Theorema Stokes" dicitur vere a Gulielmo Thomson repertus esse; vide etiam paginam Anglicam en:Stokes' theorem.
- ↑ Quamquam Biot, Savart, et Ampere omnes participaverunt ad hanc legem magneticam formulandam haec forma legis solum post Biot et Savart nominatus est; vide etiam nota 10 infra; et "Oeuvres imprimées d'AmpèreAndré-Marie Ampère," @.ampère et l'histoire de l'électricité; et L. Pearce Williams, "Ampère, André-Marie", Dictionary of Scientific Biography 1:139-147 (Novi Eboraci: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970); et paginam Anglicam en:André-Marie Ampère.
- ↑ Vide nota [9] supra.
- ↑ Haec aequatio legi Biot-Savart aequivalens nominata est post Andream Ampere. Sicut lex Biot-Savart lex Ampere exacta est solum quando fluxiones complexas sunt constantes. Posterius Iacobus Maxwell legem Ampere correxit pro casu fluxionibus variabilibus, ut videat infra.
- ↑ Historia Michaelis Faraday a L. Pearce Williams scripta est Michael Faraday: A Biography (Da Capo Press, 1987, ISBN 0-306-80299-6).
- ↑ Re vera Faraday ipse dicebat lineas viris quando exempli gratia de campo magnetico cogitabat. In suo opere "De natura lineae virium" (Anglice: "On the physical character of the lines of force") nos certiores facit anno 1852: "I cannot conceive curved lines of force without the conditions of a physical existence in that intermediate space" [emphasis additur].
- ↑ Vide notam [8] supra.
- ↑ In commentario laboratoriali, Faraday, die Augusti 1831 scripsit: "Have had an iron ring made (soft iron), iron round and 7/8 inches thick and ring 6 inches in external diameter. Wound many coils of copper wire round one half, the coils being separated by twine and calico. . . . Will call this side of the ring A . . . on the other side but separated by an interval was wound wire in two pieces together amounting to about 60 feet in length, the direction being as with the former coils; this side call B . . . continued the contact of A side [primary] with battery but broke and closed alternately contact of B side [secondary] with flat helix. No effect at such times on the needle [of a galvanometer connected to B side]—depends on the change at battery side. Hence is no permanent or peculiar state of wire from B but effect due to a wave of electricity caused at moments of breaking and completing contact at A side. Tried to perceive a spark with charcoal at flat helix junction B side but could find none. Wave apparently very short and sudden." (Qui scriptus adsumptus est ex fonte [13] supra, pag. 182.)
- ↑ Maxwell Michaeli Faraday anno 1857 scripsit: "you are the first person in whom the idea of bodies acting at a distance by throwing the surrounding medium into a state of constraint has arisen, as a principle to be actually believed in . . . nothing is clearer than your description of all sources of force keeping up a state of energy in all that surrounds them."
- ↑ J. C. Maxwell, "A Dynamical Theory Of The Electromagnetic Field", 1865, Pars 1, Pars 2, Pars 3, Pars 4, Pars 5, Pars 6; Vide etiam analysim modernam ab Andre Waser, "On the Notation of Maxwell's Field Equations, 2000, et paginas Anglicas Victorian Web: James Clerk Maxwell et en:James Clerk Maxwell.
- ↑ Vide pagina 22 in parte III scriptarum suarum anni 1861 'J. C. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines of Force",The London, Edinburg and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, Ser. 4, March, April, and May 1861'.
- ↑ "Electric waves: being researches on the propagation of electric action with finite velocity through space" Heinrico Rudolph Hertz autore; obtimemus quoque opia per Cornell University Library Digital Collections.
- ↑ Vide Lectura Praemii Nobeliani Iosephi Thomson ubi describit suam identificationem existentiae electronis.
- ↑ G. Stoney, "On The Physical Units of Nature," Phil.Mag. 11, 381-391, 1881.
- ↑ Vide Lectura Praemii Nobeliani Roberti Millikin ubi describit quomodo onus elecronis meditur.
- ↑ Vide Lectura Praemii Nobeliani Hendrici Lorentz.
- ↑ G. F. Fitzgerald, "The ether and the earth's atmosphere," Science 13, 390, 1889; H. A. Lorentz, "Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light", 6, 1903-1904, pp. 809-831, 1904.
- ↑ Vide notae [24] et [25] supra.
- ↑ A. Einstein, "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik 17, 891-921, 1905.
- ↑ Galilaeus Galilei, "Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze attenenti alla meccanica," Nederlandia, 1638; vide etiam paginam Anglice en:Galileo's Ship.
- ↑ A. A. Michelson and E.W. Morley, Philos. Mag. S.5, 24 (151), 449-463, 1887.
- ↑ A. Einstein, "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energiegehalt abhängig?", Annalen der Physik 18, 639-641, 1905; Et vide Lectura Praemii Nobeliani Alberti Einstein, "Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity."
- ↑ A. Einstein, "Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt", Annalen der Physik 17, 132–148, 1905.
- ↑ P. E. A. Lenard, Ann. Pkysik, 8, 149, 1902; vide etiam lectura Praemii Nobeliani Phillippi Lenard.
- ↑ A. Einstein, "Aether and the theory of Relativity" University of Leyden, Germany, 1920.
- ↑ H. Geiger and E. Marsden "On a Diffuse Reflection of the α-Particles," Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A 82, 495–500, 1909.
- ↑ E. Rutherford, "The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom," Philosophical Magazine, Series 6 21: 669–688, 1911.
- ↑ N. Bohr, "On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules," Philosophical Magazine, Series 6, Bol. 26. pg. 1-25, 1913; Vide etiam Lectura Praemii Nobeliani Ervinis Schrodinger.
- ↑ P. A. M. Dirac, "The Principles of Quantum Mechanics," Oxford University Press, 1st edition 1930; quarta edition 1982. ISBN 0-19-852011-5; confer etiam theoriam photonicam Einsteinis citata in nota 31 supra.
- ↑ Lecturae Praemii Nobeliani Ricardi Feynman, Julianique Schwinger et Sin-Intiri Tomonagae.
- ↑ Bureau International des Poids et Mesures;
- ↑ Aliae unitates primarias sunt Kelvin (K), Moles (mol), et Candela (cd). Unitates secundarias sunt, exempli gratia, de superficie metrum quadratum (m2), de volumine metrum cubicum (m3) de vire Newtonium (N = kg m/s2), et de tensio electrico Voltium (V = N m/A s).
- ↑ De historia Systematis Internationalis
- ↑ Aliae primariae sunt Kelvin (K) et Moles (mol). Unitates secundarias sunt, per exemplos, de superficie centimetrum quadratus (cm2), de volumine centimetrum cubicum (cm3), de vire dynium (dyn = gcm/s2), et de tensio electrico statvoltium (statV = dyn cm/Fr).
Fontes
[recensere | fontem recensere]- Gillispie, Charles C., ed. 1970-1980. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 16 vol. Novi Eboraci: Charles Scribner and Sons. ISBN 0-684-10114-9. + Supplement II, ed. Frederic Lawrence Holmes, 2 vols., 1990. ISBN 0-684-16962-2.
- Griffiths, David J. 1998. Introduction to Electrodynamics. Ed. 3a. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-805326-X.
- Jackson, John David. 1975 Classical Electrodynamics. Editio 2a. Novi Eboraci: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-43132-X.
- Mottelay, Paul FLeury. 1922. Bibiographical History of Electricity and Magnetism. Richard Clay & Sons, Ltd. ISBN 1-888262-54-0.
- Purcell, Edward M. 1985. Electricity and Magnetism. Berkeley Physics Course Volume 2, Second Edition. Bostoniae: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-004908-4.
Nexus externi
[recensere | fontem recensere]- Paginae Anglice "Maxwell's Equations" et "Electromagnetism"
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