History

EINE ALT-NEUE QUELLE ZUR GESCHICHTE DER SIEBENBÜRGER DOMINIKANER
Auszug

Vor etwa 150 Jahren hat Karl Fabritius eine wertvolle Quelle der Geschichte der Dominikaner in Siebenbürgen publiziert. Die Publikation wurde zwar von Arnold Ipolyi einige Jahre spater im Jahrbuch Magyar Sion übernommen,damit sie in breiterem Kreis bekannt wird, geriet die Quelle allmählich in Vergessenheit.
Das erste Teil des in der Schässburger Kirche gefundenen Büchleins besteht aus einer Zusammenfas sung der Testamente, die für das Kloster seit den 1460er Jahren gemacht wurden. Anton Fabri, der ehemalige Prior des Konvents, der dieses Teil verfasst hat, ergänzte die Geschichte der Testamente mit weiteren Details, die entweder nur in der Erinnerung der Konventsmitglieder, oder vielleicht in nicht auf uns gekommenen Urkunden erhalten gewesen sind.
Fabri und sein Nachfolger, Petrus de Rupe, waren die Verfasser des zweiten Teiles, die Konventlisten der Siebenbürger, und ins besondere des Schäßburger Klosters erithält. Dieses Teil wird durch die Namen der Novizen zwischen 1515–1527 und der Nativi aus dem Jahre 1529 ergänzt. Diese Listen stel- len eine sogar in Europa seltene und dadurch äußerst wertvolle Quelle dar. Sie erlauben eine detaillierte Analyse der Zusammensetzung der Konvente, sowie der Änderungen. Das dritteTeil besteht aus wirtschaftlichen Aufzeichnungen, die aber nicht das Thema dieses Aufsatzes sind.

Quellen des Paulinerlebens im spätmittelalterlichen Ungarn.
Zusammenfassung
Es gibt drei sich gegenseitig ergänzende Quellen, bzw. Quellengruppen über die spätmittelalterliche Geschichte des Paulinerordens. Neben der Ordensgeschichte von Gre-gorius Gyöngyösi, den Vitae fratrum, und dem Pauliner Formular des XVI. Jahrhundertssind eine bedeutende Menge von Urkunden und sogar das von Gyöngyösi zusammen-gestellte Inventar erhalten geblieben. Zur richtigen Deutung dieser Quellen sollen aberdie Umstände ihrer Entstehung und ihrer Erhaltung, sowie ihr Zweck berücksichtigt werden.Die Hauptquelle der mittelalterlichen Geschichte des Ordens ist traditioneller Weisedie Vitae fratrum von Gregorius Gyöngyösi. Zwar hat er bei der Zusammenstellung seines Werkes zweifelsohne auch historische Gesichtspunkte zur Geltung gebracht und viele Urkunden zitiert, doch hat er keine Ordensgeschichte im heutigen Sinne des Wortesgeschrieben. Im Fokus seiner Interesse standen seine eigenen Vorgänger, die ehemaligenGeneralprioren, und andere hervorragende Persönlichkeiten des Ordens. Unter ihnenhaben besonders diejenigen seine Aufmerksamkeit erweckt, die er als Vorbilder vor seineZeitgenossen stellen konnte. Eben diese persönliche Vorgangsweise erklärt den schematischen Charakter der frühen Vitae. Es muss auch darauf hingewiesen werden, dassdie Zuverlässigkeit seiner Angaben für die früheren Zeiten wesentlich geringer ist. Beiden zitierten Urkunden können wir feststellen, dass Gyöngyösi sich nur für die, aus derSicht des Ordens wichtigen Aspekte, bzw. für die endgültige Lösung der Sachen inter-essierte. Deshalb hat er auch in sein Inventar nur jene Klöster aufgenommen, die zu Beginn des XVI. Jahrhunderts tatsächlich dem Orden angehörten oder deren Güter inden Besitz des Ordens übergegangen waren. Das Formular zitiert die Quellen gleichfalls aus einem speziellen Gesichtspunkt. Ineine solche Urkundensammlung werden zum Teil die Beispiele für die charakteristischen,oft vorkommenden Fälle, zum Teil aber eben die Formel für die seltenen, aber destoschwierigeren oder delikaten Fälle aufgenommen. Das Formular enthält natürlich diemeisten Urkunden ohne ihre spezifischen Angaben, in manchen Fällen haben aber dieKopisten vergessen, diese Teile zu streichen. So blieben diese Formel tatsächlich Quellender Forschung im breiteren Sinn. Im Aufsatz werden einige interessantere Beispiele beschrieben.

AUGUSTINIAN HERMIT MONASTERIES IN HUNGARY

The article focuses on the history of the least researched monastic orders of medieval Hungary: the Augustinian friars. According to recent findings, between the 13th and the 16th centuries the order had about 40 monasteries, which in the 15th-16th centuries made up seven districts (districtus). The first friars are believed to have come from the territories in Southern Germany and Small Poland. Unlike the Dominicans and the Franciscans, this administrative grouping corresponds to certain territorial groups. It is striking how many monasteries were established in small settlements, partly because of the relatively late arrival of the order, and partly because of the lack of a well-designed settlement plan. Monarchs were the most zealous supporters of the order, followed – in the early years – by the bishops. From the second half of the 14th century, however, landlords and nobles play an increasingly important part in supporting the Augustinians. The late 15th and early 16th-century religious reforms had little influence on the Augustinian friars, though the number of new foundations compared to the total number of monasteries was significant, about 20-25 percent. The order must have had a highly developed educational system, though we can only assume this on the basis of the scanty evidence we have at our disposal. The location of the majority of the monasteries have not been precisely identified, the occasional archeological research mainly focused on topography. Significant findings have only been discovered in Buda, Vác, Bátmonostor and Pápóc. Though completely rebuilt, the monasteries at Bártfa, Kőrös and maybe even Eszék and Velike have survived to the present day.

THE TRADITION OF THE PAULINE ORDER AS REFLECTED IN THE CHARTERS
REMARKS ON THE MEDIEVAL HISTORY OF THE PAULINE ORDER

The history of the only significant religious order of Hungarian origin, that of the Paulines is one of the most favourite topics of ecclesiastical history in Hungary. The reason for this is the fact that two late Medieval codices, the Vitae fratrum of the general prior Gregorius Gyöngyösi and the Inventory of the Charters of the Order also collected by him were preserved and became basic sources of order history. The first modern work on the order was written by Emil Kisbán in the 1930s. The results of his work were later corrected and completed in a series of articles, beginning from the critic of Elemér Mályusz to the relevant articles of the conference volume edited by Sándor Õze and Gábor Sarbak. The purpose of the present article is to continue this series.
While evaluating the data of the charters concerning the economic activity of the monks I also had the possibility to have a look at the leaders of the order, or in some cases even to other members of the convents. Out of these data it has turned out that
the personal of the convents changed rather often, only a few monks spent several years in the monasteries in order to ensure the continuity of economic and other affairs. The monasteries were usually represented by the priors, but in some cases we
find other persons as well: some of them were former priors of the community, others probably had special knowledge needed in the given case. Other functions (sacristarius, praedicator, procurator, organista, claviger) are but rarely mentioned, mainly in the sixteenth-century Pauline formulary.
We have just a few data on the size of the convents but out of these it is quite clear that most of the convents had less than twelve monks. This tendence is also supported by the measures of the choirs of the known monasteries (Table 1). The
organisation of the order changed a lot through the centuries. In the Late Middle Ages there was a smaller unit below the province, called vicaria. Although the name is the same as in the Dominican Order, the Pauline vicaria was much smaller, only a few monasteries belonged to it. Nevertheless, the hierarchy was not always respected when official matters had to be arranged outside the order.
As far as the known persons are concerned there identification is usually not possible till the last decades of the fifteenth century since there were no family names used earlier. The charters preserved mainly the names of the leading members of the
order, among them the burghers are in majority. In this context it is worth to emphasise that the reliability of the data preserved by Gyöngyösi in the Vitae fratrum and in the Inventory is not equal. The data of the Vitae fratrum are especially problematic regarding the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, while the Inventory included mainly charters concerning those estates of the order that were in fact in its hands in the fifteenth and sixteenth century. In some cases it could be proven that Gyöngyösi used an unreliable copy of this or another charter. Based on the charters we can say that the reliability of Vitae fratrum is especially limited concerning the early history of the Pauline Order. This question leads us to the person of the Blessed Eusebius, the legendary founder of the Order. The critical analysis of the charters of 1263 and of 1291 in Vitae fratrum lead already László Solymosi to the statement that the monastery of Szentkereszt which Gyöngyös interpreted as the mother-monastery of the order could not exist before 1263. Other data suggest that its foundation was connected to the fact that the hermits could hope support rather from the king and his court than from the church. In these early charters the name of Eusebius does not occur, and his legend remained unknown till Vitae fratrum . Even Valentinus Hadnagy does not mention him in his Miracula Sancti Pauli primi Heremitae (1507–1511). Therefore I would suggest that Eusebius was the literary fiction of Gyöngyösi. In his legend the sixteenth-century general prior formulated his vision of the ideal Pauline monk, just like Saint Jerome as he wrote the legend of Saint Paul the Hermit, the presumed founder of the Pauline Order whose relics were
preserved in the monastery of Budaszentlõrinc.

It was not exceptional in the Middle Ages that ecclesiastic institutions received incomes in salt. Different abbeys had rights in salt trading as soon as in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and the Bereg agreement of 1233 regulated the quantities in details. The participation of ecclesiastics in the salt trade changed basically in the Late Middle Ages. The abbeys were crowded out of this activity, while certain mendicant friaries and Pauline monasteries were involved from the fourteenth century on. However, the character of the later donations changed significantly: salt became a special form of alms. The amount varied between the very small sums of one or two florins till the donations of a value of several hundred florins.
The most important income was given to the Pauline order which – contrarily to the mendicant orders – received salt not only through its convents, but also through its general chapter. Some convents served as salt depots, too. The salt incomes of these orders (1550 fl) represent approximately 2% of the salt incomes of the royal treasury (80000 fl) at the end of the fifteenth century. There are three types of the supported convents: those being in the vicinity of the salt mines, those being close to the salt trading routes and those being at the royal centres. It is quite conspicuous that there are but Pauline monasteries in the second group, i.e. they could play a certain role in distributing the salt. In the other cases the income was probably paid in cash (cf. salary).

"Accounting sources as documents of management and administration of mendicant friaries in medieval Hungary
Summary

The account books in general offer the best possibility to analyze the management and the everyday life of the friaries. However,
there are but a few surviving in medieval Hungary and even these are fragmentary. Their common feature is that they were not prepared for the internal use of the convents but for the patron, i.e. for the town and for its council. This fact influenced the
content, too, revealing a special aspect of the relation between the convent and the community that had the patronage rights.
Beside the account books of franciscains friary of Sopron which are the best known sources of this type, there are some fragments
of the Carmelite friary of Eperjes (Prešov), of the Hermits of St. Augustine of Bártfa (Bartfeld, Bardejov) and of the Dominican
convent of Selmecbánya (Schemnitz, Banská Štiavnica).
The picture gained from these fragmentary sources is very incomplete. Nevertheless, a certain number of characteristics could be detected through their analysis: the separation of the management of the community from that of the church, the secondary importance of the landed estates and of other properties compared to different forms of alms, as well as the changing role of the procuratores and of the friars by the end of the Middle Ages (late 15th – early 16th century). The account books of Sopron – being the most detailed documents – reflect a considerable flexibility in the economic life of the convent, as well as the prudent administration. In Sopron both the main expenses and incomes were connected to the production, especially to the wine production.
Despite some common features there was no uniform economic model at the mendicant orders in this period. Presumably, there was a certain difference between the management of the  Transdanubian and north-Hungarian convents and the Transsylvanian friaries, respectively, which is reflected in the absence of account books among the sources connected to latter group of mendicant institutions."

The Pauline order emerged in the second half of the thirteenth century and became one of the most popular religious communities of medieval Hungary. Due to their mixed – hermitic, monastic and mendicant – character, their monasteries developed an economic system and a social network that was unique in the fifteenth and sixteenth-century kingdom. Their repudiation of higher education was coupled with the prestige of manual work and literary creativity. The main supporters of the order were members of the lesser nobility and the aristocracy.

The Role of the Mendicant Orders in the Religious Renewal
of the 15th and 16th Century

The 15th century was throughout Europe the epoch of religious renewal and of urging ecclesiastic reforms. These reforms were most pushed by the mendicant orders in general and in Hungary by the Pauline monks as well. The efforts of the orders strongly influenced the piety of the lay people as well. The spirituality of Devotio Moderna emphasising personal faith was mainly transmitted by the Franciscans and the Paulines.
The changing of ideas on personal salvation is reflected in the testaments that multiplied in all social layers and the content of which changed considerably. Another sign was the Renaissance of monasticism that affected above all the mendicant orders and the Pauline. On the other hand an increasing number of different conflicts appears in the charters from the second half of the fifteenth century where the other party may be the local parson, members of the local community or even other representatives of
the diocesan clergy. The sources of these conflicts were partly the testaments and the funeral rights, partly economic affairs. Among the conflicts must also be mentioned the consequences of the 1514 peasant war. All mendicant orders, as well as the Pauline, faced serious deficiencyof personnel in the second half of the sixteenth century, step by step the provinces became exhausted. Although the Franciscans and the Paulines were present even in the times of Ottoman occupation, the Dominicans, the Austin Hermits and the Carmelites left the country. In the 1530s and 1540s the spirituality of Reformation, the doctrines of Luther and the consequently changing public opinion played perhaps an even more important role in this process than the Ottoman danger. It happened not without antecedents that these doctrines became part of contemporaneous mentality. Their adoption was prepared by the opposition of the diocesan clergy and the regulars, by the changing relation of lay people to the religion, as well as by the escalating economic conflicts and in a paradoxical way the sermons of the mendicant order.