This article analyses the circumstances that contributed to advances in the careers of the Hunga ... more This article analyses the circumstances that contributed to advances in the careers of the Hunga rian noble family Keglevich, their incorporation into the Viennese court elite and the consolidation of their position within the ranks of the Hungarian aristocracy. Joseph Keglevich, who began his service as a gentleman of the embassy in Madrid and St. Petersburg and on his return took up important and honourable positions at court and in the Kingdom of Hungary, is particularly paradigmatic in this respect. The early stages of his career, especially the six years in the Russian capital, are practically not covered in either Russian or Hungarian historiography. The article utilises the example of his career to examine the status and duties of the gentlemen of the embassy in St. Petersburg and to show the causes and consequences of possible ceremonial confl icts between the Russian autho rities and diplomatic missions. To reconstruct the events of this period in the life of the young aristocrat, documents from the funds of the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire, diplomatic correspondence of Ambassador Nikolaus Esterházy, information from Kammerfurier-journals, and so forth are used. The Supplement contains a translation of the letter of the younger brother, Sigismund Keglevich, seized from a Capuchin missionary and deposited in the fonds of the Archivesa vivid example of family correspondence of aristocrats in the eighteenth century (the original in Hungarian was lost). It is concluded that in the second half of the century, similarly to the reign of Charles VI, the diplomatic service remained the most important sphere of effort for the "economy of honour" (Andreas Pečar's term) of Viennese court society and ensured strong positions in the subsequent stages of service.
This article scrutinizes the patterns of written and oral communication of the imperial and Austr... more This article scrutinizes the patterns of written and oral communication of the imperial and Austrian ambassador to St Petersburg, Count Nikolaus (Miklós) Esterházy. He was the first Hungarian aristocrat to secure a diplomatic career, representing the House of Austria and the Holy Roman Empire at several European courts, including Saxony, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Spain, and Russia. Only a few of his autographs in German and French survive. Esterházy's biography, however, proves that he was fluent in these languages and additionally mastered the basics of written Latin and (at least) spoken Hungarian. Furthermore, the article illustrates how the Austrian mission in St Petersburg functioned in the middle of the eighteenth century and what languages were used in correspondence with the imperial vice chancellor and state chancellor. It also shows what languages diplomats needed to be proficient in to manage incoming and outgoing correspondence and how present-day historians use the private archives of the diplomat, which preserve most documents processed by the mission in their completeness and variety. Attention is paid to the diplomat's principal counterparts at the Russian court-Empress Elizabeth, Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna, Alexei P. Bestuzhev-Riumin, Mikhail I. Vorontsov, and Petr I. Shuvalov. During his stay in Russia, Esterházy followed the existing practices of writing dispatches to Vienna and communicating with the College of International Affairs in St Peterburg in German. Although it is not always clear if he used German or French at the Russian court, he was flexible enough to use both for acquiring information and gaining favors.
An important element of early modern diplomacy was symbolic communication between the allied cour... more An important element of early modern diplomacy was symbolic communication between the allied courts through the exchange of letters informing about important events in the life of the ruling dynasty, the sending of ceremonial embassies to celebrate kinship, friendship, and alliance relations. The year 1741 takes a special place in the history of Russian-Austrian relations due to the important events that influenced the fate of the two powers: the House of Austria got the heir Archduke Joseph, while in Russia the Brunswick dynasty, which ruled on behalf of infant Ivan III
(VI), failed to retain power and was overthrown in a coup at the end of the year. More
sophisticated in the symbolism of diplomatic gestures, the House of Austria in April
1741 sent four embassies to allied courts after the birth of the Archduke, including St.
Petersburg, where the third cousin of the new-born ruled. The fact of a short embassy
to Russia by Count Johann Balthasar Wilczek was soon consigned to oblivion, but the
practice of exchanging embassies survived and later flourished under Elizabeth Petrovna.
Важным элементом дипломатии раннего Нового времени была символическая коммуникация между союзными дворами, выражавшаяся в обмене грамотами, информировавшими о важных событиях в жизни правящей династии, в отправке церемониальных посольств, призванных засвидетельствовать родственные, дружественные, союзнические отношения и пр. В истории россий-
ско-австрийских отношений 1741 год занимает особое место в силу важных событий, повлиявших на дальнейшую судьбу двух держав: у Австрийского дома появился наследник эрцгерцог Иосиф, а в России Брауншвейгская династия, правившая от имени младенца Иоанна III (VI), в конце года была свергнута в ходе государственного переворота. Более искушенный в символике дипломатических жестов Австрийский дом направил после рождения эрцгерцога четыре посольства к союзным дворам, в том числе в Санкт-Петербург, где правил троюродный брат новорожденного. Факт кратковременного посольства в Россию графа Иоганна Бальтасара Вильчека вскоре был предан забвению, однако практика обмена посольствами сохранилась и пережила расцвет при Елизавете Петровне.
Count Ludwig von Zinzendorf’s Diplomatic Mission to Saint Petersburg in 1755, 2022
Count Ludwig von Zinzendorf is first and foremost known as an outstanding Austrian economist who ... more Count Ludwig von Zinzendorf is first and foremost known as an outstanding Austrian economist who greatly contributed to the national reform of finances and administrative efficiency. The early years of his career were spent in the diplomatic service under the guidance and patronage of Count Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz, who placed much hope in the ambitious young aristocrat. One of the significant episodes of Zinzendorf's diplomatic career was a mission to Russia in 1755. Its formal pretext was to convey the congratulations of the imperial couple to Empress Elizabeth I on the birth of the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Paul. At the same time, Zinzendorf was entrusted with a secret mission of learning more about the main vectors of Russian foreign policy, establishing more confidential relations with the rival groupings at the St. Petersburg court, and promoting closer joint action between Vienna, London, and St. Petersburg against Prussia in the inevitable continental war. The witty analytical mind and exceptional sociability of Zinzendorf allowed him to accomplish both missions brilliantly, the results of which he reported to Kaunitz. This paper considers both the official and unofficial activities of the imperial and Austrian envoy during his visit, the complications he faced, and the solutions he found during his two journeys to Russia in 1755 against the backdrop of Austrian-Russian relations in their heyday on the eve of the Seven Years' War.
The article is based on the materials from Russian and Austrian archives and devoted to lesser-kn... more The article is based on the materials from Russian and Austrian archives and devoted to lesser-known circumstances of the preparation and course of the 1761 diplomatic mission of Baron A.S. Stroganov to Vienna on the occasion of the wedding of the heir to the throne, Archduke Joseph, with Isabella of Parma. The embassy is considered in the context of symbolic communication through ceremonial gestures between St. Petersburg and Vienna. It emphasised the particularly friendly nature of the relationship between the two dynasties and two courts, not only united by a bilateral treaty and membership in the anti-Prussian alliance during the Seven Years War but also symbolically related as godparents. A.S. Stroganov was a young aristocrat without proper experience in the field of diplomacy and of the modest court rank of Kammer-Junker. The appointment was explained by his kinship with Chancellor M.I. Vorontsov whose daughter Anna officially accompanied her husband on the trip. The imperial ...
The article aims to reconstruct the circumstances that surrounded the preparation for the long Eu... more The article aims to reconstruct the circumstances that surrounded the preparation for the long European trip Archduke Paul and his wife Archduchess Maria made in 1781–1782, the rich cultural programme of their stay in the Habsburg capital, which included visiting the military, administrative, cultural and educational institutions and getting acquainted with the first dignitaries of the state and representatives of the major aristocratic families at the court. The article is based on the unpublished Russian and Austrian ambassadorial reports, published correspondence of Catherine II with her son and daughter-in law and with Emperor Joseph II, the newspaper Wiener Zeitung, and other sources
The second half of the eighteenth century in the lands under the sceptre of the House of Austria ... more The second half of the eighteenth century in the lands under the sceptre of the House of Austria was a period of development of a language policy addressing the ethno-linguistic diversity of the monarchy’s subjects. On the one hand, the sphere of use of the German language was becoming wider, embracing more and more segments of administration, education, and culture. On the other hand, the authorities were perfectly aware of the fact that communication in the languages and vernaculars of the nationalities living in the Austrian Monarchy was one of the principal instruments of spreading decrees and announcements from the central and local authorities to the less-educated strata of the population. Consequently, a large-scale reform of primary education was launched, aimed at making the whole population literate, regardless of social status, nationality (mother tongue), or confession. In parallel with the centrally coordinated state policy of education and language-use, subjects-both l...
This is a publication of a source from the funds of the Archives of Foreign Policy of the Russian... more This is a publication of a source from the funds of the Archives of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire – a private letter in German from 1754 written by the Russian Ambassador at Vienna, Count Heinrich Carl Keyserling, to Vice-Chancellor Count Mikhail Vorontsov and its translation into Russian from the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. The letter contains not only precious pieces of information on how the Russian mission in Vienna functioned, but also the Ambassador’s reflections on the shortcomings of the preparation of young Russian nobles, sent abroad to acquire practical knowledge and skills, for state service. Gentlemen were recruited both from the offspring of the most prominent families, and from lesser nobles living on their salaries. For the former, their stay abroad was a form of grand tour, a journey with educational goals which implied attending foreign courts and socialisation in a court milieu before appointment as ambassador or envoy to one European country or another; for the latter, on the other hand, serving abroad was a career leap, an entrance-ticket to the administrative elite of the Russian Empire. Keyserling properly defines the core problem – non-systematic education and a lack of basic knowledge indispensable for building up a successful career – and suggests measures which the government should introduce in order to improve the qualification of the future diplomats. In his response, the Vice-Chancellor suggested using all educational methods, including attending the Vienna mission archives, and thus apparently recognised that the Russian educational system was not ready to prepare skilled diplomats from the higher and middling echelons of society.
Вынужденное соседство — добровольное приспособление в дипломатических и межнациональных отношениях в Центральной, Восточной и Юго-Восточной Европе XVIII–XXI вв. , 2017
Indirect evidence from the diplomatic correspondence and a few ego-documents are used as a basis ... more Indirect evidence from the diplomatic correspondence and a few ego-documents are used as a basis for a reconstruction of major milestones in the life and career of the secretary, later councillor of the Austrian embassy in St.-Petersburg Johann Philipp Bößler von Eichenfeld, who served in Russia from 1723 to 1763.
This article analyses the circumstances that contributed to advances in the careers of the Hunga ... more This article analyses the circumstances that contributed to advances in the careers of the Hunga rian noble family Keglevich, their incorporation into the Viennese court elite and the consolidation of their position within the ranks of the Hungarian aristocracy. Joseph Keglevich, who began his service as a gentleman of the embassy in Madrid and St. Petersburg and on his return took up important and honourable positions at court and in the Kingdom of Hungary, is particularly paradigmatic in this respect. The early stages of his career, especially the six years in the Russian capital, are practically not covered in either Russian or Hungarian historiography. The article utilises the example of his career to examine the status and duties of the gentlemen of the embassy in St. Petersburg and to show the causes and consequences of possible ceremonial confl icts between the Russian autho rities and diplomatic missions. To reconstruct the events of this period in the life of the young aristocrat, documents from the funds of the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire, diplomatic correspondence of Ambassador Nikolaus Esterházy, information from Kammerfurier-journals, and so forth are used. The Supplement contains a translation of the letter of the younger brother, Sigismund Keglevich, seized from a Capuchin missionary and deposited in the fonds of the Archivesa vivid example of family correspondence of aristocrats in the eighteenth century (the original in Hungarian was lost). It is concluded that in the second half of the century, similarly to the reign of Charles VI, the diplomatic service remained the most important sphere of effort for the "economy of honour" (Andreas Pečar's term) of Viennese court society and ensured strong positions in the subsequent stages of service.
This article scrutinizes the patterns of written and oral communication of the imperial and Austr... more This article scrutinizes the patterns of written and oral communication of the imperial and Austrian ambassador to St Petersburg, Count Nikolaus (Miklós) Esterházy. He was the first Hungarian aristocrat to secure a diplomatic career, representing the House of Austria and the Holy Roman Empire at several European courts, including Saxony, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Spain, and Russia. Only a few of his autographs in German and French survive. Esterházy's biography, however, proves that he was fluent in these languages and additionally mastered the basics of written Latin and (at least) spoken Hungarian. Furthermore, the article illustrates how the Austrian mission in St Petersburg functioned in the middle of the eighteenth century and what languages were used in correspondence with the imperial vice chancellor and state chancellor. It also shows what languages diplomats needed to be proficient in to manage incoming and outgoing correspondence and how present-day historians use the private archives of the diplomat, which preserve most documents processed by the mission in their completeness and variety. Attention is paid to the diplomat's principal counterparts at the Russian court-Empress Elizabeth, Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna, Alexei P. Bestuzhev-Riumin, Mikhail I. Vorontsov, and Petr I. Shuvalov. During his stay in Russia, Esterházy followed the existing practices of writing dispatches to Vienna and communicating with the College of International Affairs in St Peterburg in German. Although it is not always clear if he used German or French at the Russian court, he was flexible enough to use both for acquiring information and gaining favors.
An important element of early modern diplomacy was symbolic communication between the allied cour... more An important element of early modern diplomacy was symbolic communication between the allied courts through the exchange of letters informing about important events in the life of the ruling dynasty, the sending of ceremonial embassies to celebrate kinship, friendship, and alliance relations. The year 1741 takes a special place in the history of Russian-Austrian relations due to the important events that influenced the fate of the two powers: the House of Austria got the heir Archduke Joseph, while in Russia the Brunswick dynasty, which ruled on behalf of infant Ivan III
(VI), failed to retain power and was overthrown in a coup at the end of the year. More
sophisticated in the symbolism of diplomatic gestures, the House of Austria in April
1741 sent four embassies to allied courts after the birth of the Archduke, including St.
Petersburg, where the third cousin of the new-born ruled. The fact of a short embassy
to Russia by Count Johann Balthasar Wilczek was soon consigned to oblivion, but the
practice of exchanging embassies survived and later flourished under Elizabeth Petrovna.
Важным элементом дипломатии раннего Нового времени была символическая коммуникация между союзными дворами, выражавшаяся в обмене грамотами, информировавшими о важных событиях в жизни правящей династии, в отправке церемониальных посольств, призванных засвидетельствовать родственные, дружественные, союзнические отношения и пр. В истории россий-
ско-австрийских отношений 1741 год занимает особое место в силу важных событий, повлиявших на дальнейшую судьбу двух держав: у Австрийского дома появился наследник эрцгерцог Иосиф, а в России Брауншвейгская династия, правившая от имени младенца Иоанна III (VI), в конце года была свергнута в ходе государственного переворота. Более искушенный в символике дипломатических жестов Австрийский дом направил после рождения эрцгерцога четыре посольства к союзным дворам, в том числе в Санкт-Петербург, где правил троюродный брат новорожденного. Факт кратковременного посольства в Россию графа Иоганна Бальтасара Вильчека вскоре был предан забвению, однако практика обмена посольствами сохранилась и пережила расцвет при Елизавете Петровне.
Count Ludwig von Zinzendorf’s Diplomatic Mission to Saint Petersburg in 1755, 2022
Count Ludwig von Zinzendorf is first and foremost known as an outstanding Austrian economist who ... more Count Ludwig von Zinzendorf is first and foremost known as an outstanding Austrian economist who greatly contributed to the national reform of finances and administrative efficiency. The early years of his career were spent in the diplomatic service under the guidance and patronage of Count Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz, who placed much hope in the ambitious young aristocrat. One of the significant episodes of Zinzendorf's diplomatic career was a mission to Russia in 1755. Its formal pretext was to convey the congratulations of the imperial couple to Empress Elizabeth I on the birth of the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Paul. At the same time, Zinzendorf was entrusted with a secret mission of learning more about the main vectors of Russian foreign policy, establishing more confidential relations with the rival groupings at the St. Petersburg court, and promoting closer joint action between Vienna, London, and St. Petersburg against Prussia in the inevitable continental war. The witty analytical mind and exceptional sociability of Zinzendorf allowed him to accomplish both missions brilliantly, the results of which he reported to Kaunitz. This paper considers both the official and unofficial activities of the imperial and Austrian envoy during his visit, the complications he faced, and the solutions he found during his two journeys to Russia in 1755 against the backdrop of Austrian-Russian relations in their heyday on the eve of the Seven Years' War.
The article is based on the materials from Russian and Austrian archives and devoted to lesser-kn... more The article is based on the materials from Russian and Austrian archives and devoted to lesser-known circumstances of the preparation and course of the 1761 diplomatic mission of Baron A.S. Stroganov to Vienna on the occasion of the wedding of the heir to the throne, Archduke Joseph, with Isabella of Parma. The embassy is considered in the context of symbolic communication through ceremonial gestures between St. Petersburg and Vienna. It emphasised the particularly friendly nature of the relationship between the two dynasties and two courts, not only united by a bilateral treaty and membership in the anti-Prussian alliance during the Seven Years War but also symbolically related as godparents. A.S. Stroganov was a young aristocrat without proper experience in the field of diplomacy and of the modest court rank of Kammer-Junker. The appointment was explained by his kinship with Chancellor M.I. Vorontsov whose daughter Anna officially accompanied her husband on the trip. The imperial ...
The article aims to reconstruct the circumstances that surrounded the preparation for the long Eu... more The article aims to reconstruct the circumstances that surrounded the preparation for the long European trip Archduke Paul and his wife Archduchess Maria made in 1781–1782, the rich cultural programme of their stay in the Habsburg capital, which included visiting the military, administrative, cultural and educational institutions and getting acquainted with the first dignitaries of the state and representatives of the major aristocratic families at the court. The article is based on the unpublished Russian and Austrian ambassadorial reports, published correspondence of Catherine II with her son and daughter-in law and with Emperor Joseph II, the newspaper Wiener Zeitung, and other sources
The second half of the eighteenth century in the lands under the sceptre of the House of Austria ... more The second half of the eighteenth century in the lands under the sceptre of the House of Austria was a period of development of a language policy addressing the ethno-linguistic diversity of the monarchy’s subjects. On the one hand, the sphere of use of the German language was becoming wider, embracing more and more segments of administration, education, and culture. On the other hand, the authorities were perfectly aware of the fact that communication in the languages and vernaculars of the nationalities living in the Austrian Monarchy was one of the principal instruments of spreading decrees and announcements from the central and local authorities to the less-educated strata of the population. Consequently, a large-scale reform of primary education was launched, aimed at making the whole population literate, regardless of social status, nationality (mother tongue), or confession. In parallel with the centrally coordinated state policy of education and language-use, subjects-both l...
This is a publication of a source from the funds of the Archives of Foreign Policy of the Russian... more This is a publication of a source from the funds of the Archives of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire – a private letter in German from 1754 written by the Russian Ambassador at Vienna, Count Heinrich Carl Keyserling, to Vice-Chancellor Count Mikhail Vorontsov and its translation into Russian from the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. The letter contains not only precious pieces of information on how the Russian mission in Vienna functioned, but also the Ambassador’s reflections on the shortcomings of the preparation of young Russian nobles, sent abroad to acquire practical knowledge and skills, for state service. Gentlemen were recruited both from the offspring of the most prominent families, and from lesser nobles living on their salaries. For the former, their stay abroad was a form of grand tour, a journey with educational goals which implied attending foreign courts and socialisation in a court milieu before appointment as ambassador or envoy to one European country or another; for the latter, on the other hand, serving abroad was a career leap, an entrance-ticket to the administrative elite of the Russian Empire. Keyserling properly defines the core problem – non-systematic education and a lack of basic knowledge indispensable for building up a successful career – and suggests measures which the government should introduce in order to improve the qualification of the future diplomats. In his response, the Vice-Chancellor suggested using all educational methods, including attending the Vienna mission archives, and thus apparently recognised that the Russian educational system was not ready to prepare skilled diplomats from the higher and middling echelons of society.
Вынужденное соседство — добровольное приспособление в дипломатических и межнациональных отношениях в Центральной, Восточной и Юго-Восточной Европе XVIII–XXI вв. , 2017
Indirect evidence from the diplomatic correspondence and a few ego-documents are used as a basis ... more Indirect evidence from the diplomatic correspondence and a few ego-documents are used as a basis for a reconstruction of major milestones in the life and career of the secretary, later councillor of the Austrian embassy in St.-Petersburg Johann Philipp Bößler von Eichenfeld, who served in Russia from 1723 to 1763.
The monograph by Hungarian historian Antal Molnár summarizes many years of research into the age ... more The monograph by Hungarian historian Antal Molnár summarizes many years of research into the age of Confessionalization in the Balkans in the space of collision and coexistence of Christianity and Islam. In the territories that fell under the rule of the Ottoman Porte in the 14 th-16 th centuries, the Holy See undertook missionary activities, the most successful in which were the Bosnian Franciscans, and cooperated with the rich and influential communities of the Ragusan merchants. The author turns to the role of the Catholic Church in the early stages of nation-building among the Albanians who had had no state tradition and explains why the idea of church union among Orthodox Serbs actually failed. The end of the Confessionalization age came with the Great Turkish War (1683-99), which saw the return to Hungary of territories that had been under the Ottoman rule for a century and a half, but which also proved tragic for Catholics who remained in the Ottoman Empire. The book is based on Italian, Hungarian and Croatian archives and offers an analysis of the historiography of the issue in a number of European languages. The author makes extensive use of methods of microhistory and cultural history, going back to broad generalizations through a detailed examination of selected well-documented cases.
Палфи Геза – доктор Венгерской академии наук, ведущий научный сотрудник Института истории Центра ... more Палфи Геза – доктор Венгерской академии наук, ведущий научный сотрудник Института истории Центра гуманитарных исследований Венгерской академии наук. Работа выполнена в рамках исследовательского проекта Венгерской академии наук «Lendület», осуществляемого творческим коллективом «Святая корона» на базе Института истории Центра гу-манитарных исследований Венгерской академии наук. В статье предлагается новый подход к изучению истории Венгерского королевства в составе Габсбургской монархии в XVII в., в основе которого отказ от односторон-ней оценки освободительных движений трансильванских князей как прогрессив-ных и трактовка политических процессов как конфликтов и компромиссов сосло-вий с венским двором и династией. The article suggests a new approach to studying history of the Kindom of Hungary in the Habsburg Monarchy in the seventeenth century, which implies refuse from the one-sided estimation of the liberation movements of the Transylvanian princes as progressive, and treatment of political processes as confl icts and compromises with the Vienna Court and the dynasty. Ключевые слова: политическая борьба, XVII век, компромисс, сословия, Габсбурги.
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(VI), failed to retain power and was overthrown in a coup at the end of the year. More
sophisticated in the symbolism of diplomatic gestures, the House of Austria in April
1741 sent four embassies to allied courts after the birth of the Archduke, including St.
Petersburg, where the third cousin of the new-born ruled. The fact of a short embassy
to Russia by Count Johann Balthasar Wilczek was soon consigned to oblivion, but the
practice of exchanging embassies survived and later flourished under Elizabeth Petrovna.
Важным элементом дипломатии раннего Нового времени была символическая коммуникация между союзными дворами, выражавшаяся в обмене грамотами, информировавшими о важных событиях в жизни правящей династии, в отправке церемониальных посольств, призванных засвидетельствовать родственные, дружественные, союзнические отношения и пр. В истории россий-
ско-австрийских отношений 1741 год занимает особое место в силу важных событий, повлиявших на дальнейшую судьбу двух держав: у Австрийского дома появился наследник эрцгерцог Иосиф, а в России Брауншвейгская династия, правившая от имени младенца Иоанна III (VI), в конце года была свергнута в ходе государственного переворота. Более искушенный в символике дипломатических жестов Австрийский дом направил после рождения эрцгерцога четыре посольства к союзным дворам, в том числе в Санкт-Петербург, где правил троюродный брат новорожденного. Факт кратковременного посольства в Россию графа Иоганна Бальтасара Вильчека вскоре был предан забвению, однако практика обмена посольствами сохранилась и пережила расцвет при Елизавете Петровне.
milieu before appointment as ambassador or envoy to one European country or another; for the latter, on the other hand, serving abroad was a career leap, an entrance-ticket to the administrative elite of the Russian Empire. Keyserling properly defines the core problem – non-systematic education and a lack of basic knowledge indispensable for building up a successful career – and suggests measures which the government should introduce in order to improve the qualification of the future diplomats. In his response, the Vice-Chancellor suggested using all educational methods, including attending the Vienna mission archives, and thus apparently recognised that the Russian educational system was not ready to prepare skilled diplomats from the higher and middling
echelons of society.
(VI), failed to retain power and was overthrown in a coup at the end of the year. More
sophisticated in the symbolism of diplomatic gestures, the House of Austria in April
1741 sent four embassies to allied courts after the birth of the Archduke, including St.
Petersburg, where the third cousin of the new-born ruled. The fact of a short embassy
to Russia by Count Johann Balthasar Wilczek was soon consigned to oblivion, but the
practice of exchanging embassies survived and later flourished under Elizabeth Petrovna.
Важным элементом дипломатии раннего Нового времени была символическая коммуникация между союзными дворами, выражавшаяся в обмене грамотами, информировавшими о важных событиях в жизни правящей династии, в отправке церемониальных посольств, призванных засвидетельствовать родственные, дружественные, союзнические отношения и пр. В истории россий-
ско-австрийских отношений 1741 год занимает особое место в силу важных событий, повлиявших на дальнейшую судьбу двух держав: у Австрийского дома появился наследник эрцгерцог Иосиф, а в России Брауншвейгская династия, правившая от имени младенца Иоанна III (VI), в конце года была свергнута в ходе государственного переворота. Более искушенный в символике дипломатических жестов Австрийский дом направил после рождения эрцгерцога четыре посольства к союзным дворам, в том числе в Санкт-Петербург, где правил троюродный брат новорожденного. Факт кратковременного посольства в Россию графа Иоганна Бальтасара Вильчека вскоре был предан забвению, однако практика обмена посольствами сохранилась и пережила расцвет при Елизавете Петровне.
milieu before appointment as ambassador or envoy to one European country or another; for the latter, on the other hand, serving abroad was a career leap, an entrance-ticket to the administrative elite of the Russian Empire. Keyserling properly defines the core problem – non-systematic education and a lack of basic knowledge indispensable for building up a successful career – and suggests measures which the government should introduce in order to improve the qualification of the future diplomats. In his response, the Vice-Chancellor suggested using all educational methods, including attending the Vienna mission archives, and thus apparently recognised that the Russian educational system was not ready to prepare skilled diplomats from the higher and middling
echelons of society.