Journal of zoo and wildlife medicine : official publication of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, 2002
Safe, effective, and reversible immobilization protocols are essential for the management of free... more Safe, effective, and reversible immobilization protocols are essential for the management of free-ranging red wolves (Canis rufus). Combinations using an alpha2-adrenoceptor agonist and ketamine have been shown to be effective for immobilization but are not reversible and can produce severe hypertension and prolonged or rough recoveries. To minimize hypertension and provide reversibility, 24 red wolves were immobilized using three medetomidine-butorphanol (MB) combinations without the use of ketamine in the initial injection. All wolves were administered medetomidine (0.04 mg/kg i.m.) and butorphanol (0.4 mg/kg i.m.). Seven wolves received no other immobilization agents (MB wolves), nine received diazepam (0.2 mg/kg i.v.) at the time they were instrumented (MBD wolves), and eight received ketamine (1 mg/kg i.v.) 30 min after instrumentation (MBK30 wolves). Physiologic parameters were monitored during immobilization. The heart rate was similar among the three groups for the first 30 ...
This study evaluated selected bacteriologic and nutritional components of a commercially prepared... more This study evaluated selected bacteriologic and nutritional components of a commercially prepared ground raw horsemeat diet as part of a raw meat safety program. Six lots of meat were analyzed in triplicate. Frozen meat samples were thawed for 44 hr at 5°C. Meat samples were tested at three times during thawing (t = 0, 24, 44 hr) for selected bacteria. Samples were screened for Salmonella sp. using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Escherichia coli and total coliform bacteria were quantified using a ready-made culture medium system. Proximate, energy, macro and trace mineral composition was determined at a reference laboratory. Salmonella sp. antigen was detected in one sample of meat at t = 0 hr. Frozen meat samples had low average maximum expected numbers of E. coli and coliforms. The average maximum number of E. coli did not change significantly at t = 24 or 44 hr, but the average maximum number of coliforms increased significantly by t = 44 hr. These bacteriologic tests were easily incorporated into a raw meat safety program. Median concentrations of moisture, dry matter, crude protein, crude fat, ash, calcium, and phosphorus conformed to the guaranteed analysis but median crude fiber exceeded the guaranteed maximum. Median magnesium, potassium, and sodium concentrations conformed to the approximate nutrient content. Median concentrations of copper exceeded, whereas iron, zinc, and manganese fell below, the approximate nutrient content. Median copper and manganese concentrations exceeded the National Research Council's recommendation for adult domestic cats, whereas iron and zinc were below the National Research Council's recommendations for adult cats.
Capture myopathy and associated death have been reported with capture and restraint of greater fl... more Capture myopathy and associated death have been reported with capture and restraint of greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) and lesser flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor). In chickens (Gallus gallus), blood lactate concentration levels have been used as indicators of muscle damage. Lactate has also been used to predict survival in humans and dogs. The goals of this study were to validate two common methods for measuring lactate (i-STAT and VetTest analyzers) in flamingo plasma by comparing measurements to a reference analyzer; and to correlate blood lactate concentration levels in captured flamingos with the duration and difficulty of capture as a possible indicator of capture myopathy. Twenty-seven banked flamingo plasma samples were run in triplicate on each of the three blood analyzers. Values from the i-STAT analyzer were consistently lower than those from the ABL analyzer, while values from the VetTest were consistently higher than those from the ABL analyzer. However, there was a good level of correlation between all three analyzers. Two of the three analyzers were determined to have acceptable total allowable error levels, calculated at 3.6% for the ABL and 10.7% for the VetTest. For clinical purposes, both the i-STAT and the VetTest analyzers provide adequate evaluation of lactate levels when serial samples are measured on the same analyzer. After validating the assay, 34 captive flamingos were captured for routine examinations. Blood lactate concentration levels were positively correlated with the length of time of the individual capture, but lactate did not increase significantly as capture difficulty increased. Only one animal was considered to have a difficult capture. No flamingos demonstrated clinical signs of capture myopathy during this study. Further research is required to determine if blood lactate concentration is a useful indicator of capture myopathy.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 2002
Objective—To characterize clinical features of avian vacuolar myelinopathy (AVM) in American coot... more Objective—To characterize clinical features of avian vacuolar myelinopathy (AVM) in American coots. Design—Case-control study. Animals—26 AVM-affected American coots and 12 unaffected coots. Procedures—Complete physical, neurologic, hematologic, and plasma biochemical evaluations were performed. Affected coots received supportive care. All coots died or were euthanatized, and AVM status was confirmed via histopathologic findings. Results—3 severely affected coots were euthanatized immediately after examination. Seventeen affected coots were found dead within 7 days of admission, but 5 affected coots survived > 21 days and had signs of clinical recovery. Abnormal physical examination findings appeared to be related to general debilitation. Ataxia (88%), decreased withdrawal reflexes (88%), proprioceptive deficits (81%), decreased vent responses (69%), beak or tongue weakness (42%), and head tremors (31%), as well as absent pupillary light responses (46%), anisocoria (15%), apparen...
Objective—To determine the minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) of isoflurane in thick-billed p... more Objective—To determine the minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) of isoflurane in thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha). Animals—15 healthy thick-billed parrots. Procedures—Anesthesia was induced and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. In the first bird that was anesthetized, end-tidal isoflurane concentration was maintained at 1.0% for 15 minutes. After this period of anesthetic equilibration, an end-tidal gas sample was obtained for verification of isoflurane concentration. A toe was pinched to determine the bird's response to pain, and the bird was then allowed to recover from aesthesia. To determine MAC, a so-called up-and-down approach was subsequently used in all 15 birds. Compared with the isoflurane concentration used for MAC determination in the first bird, maintenance isoflurane concentration for the second bird was increased by approximately 10% if the first bird reacted and decreased by approximately 10% if the first bird did not react to a toe pinch. ...
Objective—To determine the minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) of sevoflurane in thick-billed ... more Objective—To determine the minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) of sevoflurane in thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) and compare MAC obtained via mechanical and electrical stimulation. Animals—15 healthy thick-billed parrots. Procedures—Anesthesia was induced in each parrot by administration of sevoflurane in oxygen. An end-tidal sevoflurane concentration of 2.5% was established in the first bird. Fifteen minutes was allowed for equilibration. Then, 2 types of noxious stimulation (mechanical and electrical) were applied; stimuli were separated by 15 minutes. Responses to stimuli were graded as positive or negative. For a positive or negative response to a stimulus, the target end-tidal sevoflurane concentration of the subsequent bird was increased or decreased by 10%, respectively. The MAC was calculated as the mean end-tidal sevoflurane concentration during crossover events, defined as instances in which independent pairs of birds evaluated in succession had opposi...
An adult male black-necked swan (Cygnus melanocoryphus) was evaluated for a routine physical exam... more An adult male black-necked swan (Cygnus melanocoryphus) was evaluated for a routine physical examination and West Nile virus vaccination. Nine days later, the swan was hospitalized for weakness, dehydration, tremors, and leukocytosis. Gradual clinical improvement was seen over a 2-wk course of supportive care. However, the animal became acutely weak and was found dead. Histopathology revealed severe granulomatous pneumonia and air sacculitis with dissemination to the liver, spleen, intestine, and coelom. Mycobacterial infection was confirmed by identification of acid-fast bacilli within tissue sections and by polymerase chain reaction. Concurrent West Nile virus infection was identified in sections of brain by using immunohistochemistry.
West Nile virus (WNV) was first documented in North America in New York City in 1999. Several dea... more West Nile virus (WNV) was first documented in North America in New York City in 1999. Several deaths attributable to WNV have been reported in captive thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha), an endangered psittacine native to North America. The serologic responses in 12 captive adult thick-billed parrots after a series of three initial WNV vaccine injections with annual boosters over 6 yr was evaluated. In addition, the serologic responses of 11 thick-billed parrot chicks following an initial vaccination series to determine if there were seroconversions were also reported. Most adults (67%) had seroconverted after 5 yr of annual vaccination, with a median titer of 1:80 (range 1:40-1:160) for those that seroconverted. After the first year, birds were likely naturally exposed to WNV, which limited interpretation of titers. None of the chicks seroconverted during the initial three-vaccine series; only two of four chicks (50%) had seroconverted when tested at the 1-yr yearly booster, and at 2 yr, three of four chicks had seroconverted. Although some birds had detectable antibody titers, it is unclear whether this vaccine can reliably provide protection against WNV in thick-billed parrots.
Journal of zoo and wildlife medicine : official publication of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, 2001
The deaths of two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in August 1996 led the United States Departme... more The deaths of two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in August 1996 led the United States Department of Agriculture to require the testing and treatment of elephants for tuberculosis. From August 1996 to September 1999. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection was confirmed by culture in 12 of 118 elephants in six herds. Eight diagnoses were made antemortem on the basis of isolation of M. tuberculosis by culture of trunk wash samples; the remainder (including the initial two) were diagnosed postmortem. We present the case histories, epidemiologic characteristics, diagnostic test results, and therapeutic plans from these six herds. The intradermal tuberculin test, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay serology, the blood tuberculosis test, and nucleic acid amplification and culture are compared as methods to diagnose M. tuberculosis infection in elephants.
Journal of zoo and wildlife medicine : official publication of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, 2002
Safe, effective, and reversible immobilization protocols are essential for the management of free... more Safe, effective, and reversible immobilization protocols are essential for the management of free-ranging red wolves (Canis rufus). Combinations using an alpha2-adrenoceptor agonist and ketamine have been shown to be effective for immobilization but are not reversible and can produce severe hypertension and prolonged or rough recoveries. To minimize hypertension and provide reversibility, 24 red wolves were immobilized using three medetomidine-butorphanol (MB) combinations without the use of ketamine in the initial injection. All wolves were administered medetomidine (0.04 mg/kg i.m.) and butorphanol (0.4 mg/kg i.m.). Seven wolves received no other immobilization agents (MB wolves), nine received diazepam (0.2 mg/kg i.v.) at the time they were instrumented (MBD wolves), and eight received ketamine (1 mg/kg i.v.) 30 min after instrumentation (MBK30 wolves). Physiologic parameters were monitored during immobilization. The heart rate was similar among the three groups for the first 30 ...
This study evaluated selected bacteriologic and nutritional components of a commercially prepared... more This study evaluated selected bacteriologic and nutritional components of a commercially prepared ground raw horsemeat diet as part of a raw meat safety program. Six lots of meat were analyzed in triplicate. Frozen meat samples were thawed for 44 hr at 5°C. Meat samples were tested at three times during thawing (t = 0, 24, 44 hr) for selected bacteria. Samples were screened for Salmonella sp. using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Escherichia coli and total coliform bacteria were quantified using a ready-made culture medium system. Proximate, energy, macro and trace mineral composition was determined at a reference laboratory. Salmonella sp. antigen was detected in one sample of meat at t = 0 hr. Frozen meat samples had low average maximum expected numbers of E. coli and coliforms. The average maximum number of E. coli did not change significantly at t = 24 or 44 hr, but the average maximum number of coliforms increased significantly by t = 44 hr. These bacteriologic tests were easily incorporated into a raw meat safety program. Median concentrations of moisture, dry matter, crude protein, crude fat, ash, calcium, and phosphorus conformed to the guaranteed analysis but median crude fiber exceeded the guaranteed maximum. Median magnesium, potassium, and sodium concentrations conformed to the approximate nutrient content. Median concentrations of copper exceeded, whereas iron, zinc, and manganese fell below, the approximate nutrient content. Median copper and manganese concentrations exceeded the National Research Council's recommendation for adult domestic cats, whereas iron and zinc were below the National Research Council's recommendations for adult cats.
Capture myopathy and associated death have been reported with capture and restraint of greater fl... more Capture myopathy and associated death have been reported with capture and restraint of greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) and lesser flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor). In chickens (Gallus gallus), blood lactate concentration levels have been used as indicators of muscle damage. Lactate has also been used to predict survival in humans and dogs. The goals of this study were to validate two common methods for measuring lactate (i-STAT and VetTest analyzers) in flamingo plasma by comparing measurements to a reference analyzer; and to correlate blood lactate concentration levels in captured flamingos with the duration and difficulty of capture as a possible indicator of capture myopathy. Twenty-seven banked flamingo plasma samples were run in triplicate on each of the three blood analyzers. Values from the i-STAT analyzer were consistently lower than those from the ABL analyzer, while values from the VetTest were consistently higher than those from the ABL analyzer. However, there was a good level of correlation between all three analyzers. Two of the three analyzers were determined to have acceptable total allowable error levels, calculated at 3.6% for the ABL and 10.7% for the VetTest. For clinical purposes, both the i-STAT and the VetTest analyzers provide adequate evaluation of lactate levels when serial samples are measured on the same analyzer. After validating the assay, 34 captive flamingos were captured for routine examinations. Blood lactate concentration levels were positively correlated with the length of time of the individual capture, but lactate did not increase significantly as capture difficulty increased. Only one animal was considered to have a difficult capture. No flamingos demonstrated clinical signs of capture myopathy during this study. Further research is required to determine if blood lactate concentration is a useful indicator of capture myopathy.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 2002
Objective—To characterize clinical features of avian vacuolar myelinopathy (AVM) in American coot... more Objective—To characterize clinical features of avian vacuolar myelinopathy (AVM) in American coots. Design—Case-control study. Animals—26 AVM-affected American coots and 12 unaffected coots. Procedures—Complete physical, neurologic, hematologic, and plasma biochemical evaluations were performed. Affected coots received supportive care. All coots died or were euthanatized, and AVM status was confirmed via histopathologic findings. Results—3 severely affected coots were euthanatized immediately after examination. Seventeen affected coots were found dead within 7 days of admission, but 5 affected coots survived > 21 days and had signs of clinical recovery. Abnormal physical examination findings appeared to be related to general debilitation. Ataxia (88%), decreased withdrawal reflexes (88%), proprioceptive deficits (81%), decreased vent responses (69%), beak or tongue weakness (42%), and head tremors (31%), as well as absent pupillary light responses (46%), anisocoria (15%), apparen...
Objective—To determine the minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) of isoflurane in thick-billed p... more Objective—To determine the minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) of isoflurane in thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha). Animals—15 healthy thick-billed parrots. Procedures—Anesthesia was induced and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. In the first bird that was anesthetized, end-tidal isoflurane concentration was maintained at 1.0% for 15 minutes. After this period of anesthetic equilibration, an end-tidal gas sample was obtained for verification of isoflurane concentration. A toe was pinched to determine the bird's response to pain, and the bird was then allowed to recover from aesthesia. To determine MAC, a so-called up-and-down approach was subsequently used in all 15 birds. Compared with the isoflurane concentration used for MAC determination in the first bird, maintenance isoflurane concentration for the second bird was increased by approximately 10% if the first bird reacted and decreased by approximately 10% if the first bird did not react to a toe pinch. ...
Objective—To determine the minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) of sevoflurane in thick-billed ... more Objective—To determine the minimum anesthetic concentration (MAC) of sevoflurane in thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) and compare MAC obtained via mechanical and electrical stimulation. Animals—15 healthy thick-billed parrots. Procedures—Anesthesia was induced in each parrot by administration of sevoflurane in oxygen. An end-tidal sevoflurane concentration of 2.5% was established in the first bird. Fifteen minutes was allowed for equilibration. Then, 2 types of noxious stimulation (mechanical and electrical) were applied; stimuli were separated by 15 minutes. Responses to stimuli were graded as positive or negative. For a positive or negative response to a stimulus, the target end-tidal sevoflurane concentration of the subsequent bird was increased or decreased by 10%, respectively. The MAC was calculated as the mean end-tidal sevoflurane concentration during crossover events, defined as instances in which independent pairs of birds evaluated in succession had opposi...
An adult male black-necked swan (Cygnus melanocoryphus) was evaluated for a routine physical exam... more An adult male black-necked swan (Cygnus melanocoryphus) was evaluated for a routine physical examination and West Nile virus vaccination. Nine days later, the swan was hospitalized for weakness, dehydration, tremors, and leukocytosis. Gradual clinical improvement was seen over a 2-wk course of supportive care. However, the animal became acutely weak and was found dead. Histopathology revealed severe granulomatous pneumonia and air sacculitis with dissemination to the liver, spleen, intestine, and coelom. Mycobacterial infection was confirmed by identification of acid-fast bacilli within tissue sections and by polymerase chain reaction. Concurrent West Nile virus infection was identified in sections of brain by using immunohistochemistry.
West Nile virus (WNV) was first documented in North America in New York City in 1999. Several dea... more West Nile virus (WNV) was first documented in North America in New York City in 1999. Several deaths attributable to WNV have been reported in captive thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha), an endangered psittacine native to North America. The serologic responses in 12 captive adult thick-billed parrots after a series of three initial WNV vaccine injections with annual boosters over 6 yr was evaluated. In addition, the serologic responses of 11 thick-billed parrot chicks following an initial vaccination series to determine if there were seroconversions were also reported. Most adults (67%) had seroconverted after 5 yr of annual vaccination, with a median titer of 1:80 (range 1:40-1:160) for those that seroconverted. After the first year, birds were likely naturally exposed to WNV, which limited interpretation of titers. None of the chicks seroconverted during the initial three-vaccine series; only two of four chicks (50%) had seroconverted when tested at the 1-yr yearly booster, and at 2 yr, three of four chicks had seroconverted. Although some birds had detectable antibody titers, it is unclear whether this vaccine can reliably provide protection against WNV in thick-billed parrots.
Journal of zoo and wildlife medicine : official publication of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, 2001
The deaths of two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in August 1996 led the United States Departme... more The deaths of two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in August 1996 led the United States Department of Agriculture to require the testing and treatment of elephants for tuberculosis. From August 1996 to September 1999. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection was confirmed by culture in 12 of 118 elephants in six herds. Eight diagnoses were made antemortem on the basis of isolation of M. tuberculosis by culture of trunk wash samples; the remainder (including the initial two) were diagnosed postmortem. We present the case histories, epidemiologic characteristics, diagnostic test results, and therapeutic plans from these six herds. The intradermal tuberculin test, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay serology, the blood tuberculosis test, and nucleic acid amplification and culture are compared as methods to diagnose M. tuberculosis infection in elephants.
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