Papers: Numismatics / Roman History
Niš & Byzantium XXI, 2023
The date of birth of Constantine I is known to be the 27 February. Unfortunately, the year is unc... more The date of birth of Constantine I is known to be the 27 February. Unfortunately, the year is uncertain. However, a unique coin held by the British Museum for almost 200 years has been suggested to celebrate Constantine’s 50th birthday. The coin bears the legend PLVRA NATAL FEL, “May there be many happy birth[day]s”. If this coin could be accurately assigned to a bronze coin emission with a known date, the riddle may be solved. The portrait style of the coin points to the 320’s. During this decade Constantine’s portrait under- went a succession of changes enabling us – when we combine the iconography and the mint marks – to restrict possible dates of production of a particular coin to a few years or less. Now a second example of the PLVRA NATAL FEL type has surfaced. The authenticity of the BM coin has never been questioned, but examination of the actual specimen revealed that it is a forgery. The new example shows the same indications of manipulation, and it is concluded that it is also an old forgery. Both were produced using genuine coins, by grinding down the original reverse and creating a new reverse with wax and acid treat- ment. They cannot be used to deduce the year of birth of Constantine I, which remains uncertain. The methods used to produce these forgeries are discussed.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Nis and Byzantium, 2022
This study describes an important Roman double-sided imperial lead seal. The front bears the imag... more This study describes an important Roman double-sided imperial lead seal. The front bears the image of an emperor wearing a laureate helmet, flanked by a Chi-Rho and the legend AVG N. The bust is closely comparable to that of Constantine I on coins, and the presence of a both a Chi-Rho and Sol supports our identification of Constantine I. Two further lead seals are also presented, interpreted as showing the same emperor. The Chi-Rho first appeared in 312, and Sol disappeared from the coinage in 318 CE, indicating that the date of the seal is between 312 and 318. The helmeted bust of the emperor is most similar to coin depictions from c. 315, especially from Ticinum. The seal is of the type possibly used on money bags, and we tentatively suggest that the seal could have been produced and used during Constantine's stay in Ticinum in the autumn/winter 315 CE. The simultaneous presence of a Chi-Rho and Sol on a seal of Constantine I indicates that the Chi-Rho had not yet taken on the Christian meaning it took later. The seal also confirms the evidence from the coinage that several years after the introduction of the Chi-Rho, Constantine still favoured Sol as his comes. The seal is taken to indicate that the Chi-Rho was introduced as Constantine's personal victory sign, not as a strictly Christian symbol. Roman money bags are described, and the ubiquitous three protrusions seen are explained through a comparison with ancient wine skins.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
The Numismatic Chronicle, 2020
In AD 326, Constantine executed his son Crispus and his wife Fausta. A die study of the 5-6 month... more In AD 326, Constantine executed his son Crispus and his wife Fausta. A die study of the 5-6 months-long Providentiae bronze coin emission of Constantinopolis indicates that Crispus was eliminated early in the emission. Production possibly ended with the elimination of Fausta, dated here to October or November on the basis of coinage from Ticinum. The 50% more coins for officinae A than for B may indicate the number of anvils in use, three in A and two in B. The die study identifies 301 obverse and 302 reverse dies, that is, equal numbers. The average working life of each die may have been surprisingly short, perhaps a few hours to a few days. The number of known coins and dies may indicate that coins struck for Crispus and Fausta were actively withdrawn after their deaths. This controversial conclusion is supported by several further examples showing a similar pattern.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Niš & Byzantium XIX, 2021
An enigmatic group of 1/24-pound silver multiples has long been thought to commemorate the vicenn... more An enigmatic group of 1/24-pound silver multiples has long been thought to commemorate the vicennalia of Constantine Caesar in 336/337. This study adds the mint of Rome to the list of producing mints but removes Constantinopolis and Nicomedia. Six further mints produced these multiples: Treveri, Arelate, Lugdunum, Aquileia, Siscia, and Thessalonica. The date and issuer of the multiples can be deduced from the geographic area encompassing these seven mints. In 335 CE, Constantine I prepared for his succession by dividing his empire amongst his three remaining sons plus his nephew Dalmatius. Six of these mints were in areas under the authority of Constantine Caesar, either directly or through his inferred tutelage of Constans. The mint of Thessalonica was, however, in Macedonia which was allotted to Dalmatius. Following the murder of Dalmatius soon after the death of Constantine I, Constans received Thessalonica, in reality meaning that his guardian Constantine Caesar gained control of the city. As a result, all seven mints producing the multiples were controlled by Constantine Caesar during the three-month period between the murder of Dalmatius and the proclamation of the three remaining Caesars as Augusti on 9 September 337. After this date there were no Caesars and no Augustus controlled all mints producing the multiples. The production of the silver multiples can thus be pinpointed to the three-month interregnum period following the death of Constantine I and Dalmatius.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte, 2020
The famous SPES PVBLIC (SP) coin of Constantine I was not a small, special emission but part of t... more The famous SPES PVBLIC (SP) coin of Constantine I was not a small, special emission but part of the regular coinage. A detailed study of all 45 known genuine SP coins is presented. Several die matches between SP coins and coins outside the type are described, and the original number of dies is calculated. The die matches prove conclusively that the SP coins were part of two regular 4-type bronze coin emissions, also including the types GLORIA ROMANORVM (GR), GLORIA EXERCITVS (GE), and LIBERTAS PVBLICA (LP). The first 4-type emission, with Constantine’s laureate head, was produced normally, but data indicates that the second emission, with diademed head, was interrupted shortly after its inception, and the SP type was discontinued, after which the emission was continued. Indications are presented for an active removal of SP coins in circulation. The two 4-type emissions are detailed. Also the dafne emissions are reviewed and re-organized. The analysis indicates that silver Emission 2 of Ramskold 2018a was produced after the second 4-type emission but before the start of the dafne coinage.
The four known contemporary SP imitations are described, as are 22 modern forgeries. The evolution of Constantine’s diadem is detailed. Most important, the first diadems to appear in the bronze coinage can be dated to the later part of Constantine’s return journey from his vicennial celebrations. None are earlier than early/mid 327, without exception. The importance of the tie loop for chronology is presented. Coin production features such as the centering mark and compass circles are described.
Numerous hypotheses for the purpose and message of the SPES PVBLIC coins are reviewed, but the evidence is inconclusive. The view is forwarded that the SP type cannot be seen isolated but must be analyzed as one of four related types in the two 4-type emissions of GR, GE, LP, and SP. These in turn must be considered in the light of the disastrous vicennial celebration journey, during which Constantine had his eldest son, his wife, his nephew and many others killed. After the murders, Constantine travelled very slowly back from Rome to Constantinople. He must have made sure that his position was not threatened, and he would have made plans for a different future. These were the circumstances when the SPES PVBLIC type was introduced.
All credible reports of the Chi-Rho and the staurogram from the time of Constantine are reviewed and the hypotheses for their origins are discussed. The earliest depictions of the Chi-Rho are found on two North African milestones, securely dated to October 312 – April 313. The SP coins of Constantine I have been regarded since the 1500s as proof of Constantine’s conversion to Christianity. Evidence is presented here that Constantine’s Chi-Rho was a victory sign which later took on a Christian significance. The reports of Chi-Rho’s from under the Basilica of St Peter and from the Domus Faustae, both in Rome, are rejected here. The earliest credible occurrences of the Chi-Rho in a Christian context are on a tombstone from 324, and in Porphyrius’ poem no. 8, dating from before 326.
The sign described by Lactantius was a staurogram. There is no evidence that the staurogram predates Constantine. Previous datings of the staurogram in papyri have been revised, the graffiti occurrence (if it exists) may be post-Constantinian, and the earliest occurrence on coins is from 336 CE.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte, vol. 68, pp. 145-198, with 13 Figures, 2018
This study presents the first evidence for a millennium celebration of the foundation of Byzantio... more This study presents the first evidence for a millennium celebration of the foundation of Byzantion, the city re-named Constantinopolis by Constantine I. An emission of silver donatives consists of miliarense and siliquae carrying the letter M, interpreted here to stand for the 1,000 years celebration, dated here to 333/334 CE. Supplementing the author’s previous publications of the silver emissions produced for the inauguration of Constantinopolis in 330 CE, a complete revision of all other Constantinian silver emissions from the city is presented, based on the 199 specimens known today. A review is given of Constantine’s evolving hair style, which is an important chronological indicator. i.e. changes in hair style are followed from 330 to 335 CE in the five bronze coinage emissions of Rome, and a revision and new chronology of these emissions are given. Completing the revision of all silver emissions from Constantinopolis under Constantine I, evidence is presented for the four remaining groups: the NOB CAESS medallions are made of bronze, not silver; the Constantiniana dafne gold and silver specimens are all forgeries; the authenticity of the Hanniballianus silver is questionable; and the AVGVSTVS/CAESAR medallions are not from Constantinopolis, but some are from Rome. Finally, the reasons why Eusebius abruptly discontinued his Chronicles in 326 are discussed, and Jerome’s contributions 40 years later for the 276th Olympiad are identified.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Bulletin de la Société Française de Numismatique, 2018
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
This study describes all 67 known specimens of Constantine I’s Felicitas Romanorum silver emissio... more This study describes all 67 known specimens of Constantine I’s Felicitas Romanorum silver emissions, including fragments and forgeries. These donatives were introduced by Constantine in 323/324 CE and produced until 328/329 CE. Three series are defined, each showing the number of princes recognised at the moment. A chronology is established, showing that the type was struck at six mints with a total of ten emissions. We correlate these with Constantine’s itineraries and find that every emission from every minting city coincides with the proven or possible presence of Constantine. All evidence, including hoard data, indicates that these silver “coins” were in fact donatives given out by Constantine along the route. The weight of the Felicitas Romanorum first increased in steps but soon stabilized at c. 4.35g. We also present a survey of all silver issues struck under Constantine between 309 and the introduction of the miliarense in 323/324. They appear to show that Constantine experimented with different weights for the silver donatives before the miliarense was created. We survey the various types of miliarense produced through Constantine’s reign and show that he produced two further types of miliarense: the Virtus exercitus and the Gloria exercitus, and we compare these to the slightly heavier 4 standards type. Again, it appears likely that all of these types were produced as donatives when Constantine was in the minting city. We show that Constantine’s denomination continued to be struck for generations, and how – just like under Constantine - the reverse imagery changed according to circumstances, with the number of rulers figured under the arch reflecting the actual situation in the imperial college. We also survey the Felicitas Romanorum type under the emperors after Constantine, and we see how the post-Constantinian types Victoria Romanorum and Gloria Romanorum fit in the picture. We give weight data for all of the emissions, and we conclude that for 40 years or more, the weight of the miliarense, introduced by Constantine I, remained stable.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte, 2016
Summary: A die link study of all 124 traceable examples of Festival of Isis tokens from the reign... more Summary: A die link study of all 124 traceable examples of Festival of Isis tokens from the reign of Constantine I is presented. The first Festival of Isis issues were struck in 306 CE under the second tetrarchy. After a break during Maxentius’ rule, Constantine revived the concept, and his reign produced a profusion of types. All were struck at the imperial mint of Rome, and all in the name of a member of the imperial houses, with no anonymous examples. Of the 124 known Constantinian specimens, 97 show Egyptian gods. They are die linked to 27 examples of three ‘fractions’: PRINCIPI IVVENTVTIS, VICTORIA CAESS, and VOTA VICENNALIOR. Almost all appear to be struck in bronze, not in brass as became the custom later. The majority are die linked to other specimens, and the three largest die linked groups include 24, 14, and 11 examples, respectively. Only ten tokens lack die links. There are in total 51 obverse dies and 50 reverse dies. Statistical analysis may indicate that some 60 % (95 % confidence interval 47 % – 73 %) of the original number of dies are known. Evidence for issues struck the following years is presented: 313 – Rome in Constantine’s hands; 314 – reason unknown; 316 – decennalia; 317 – Caesars introduced; 321 – quinquennalia, 326 – vicennalia; 329 – visit by Constantine; 330/331 – quinvicennalia. The material thus forms a minimum of eight issues, but in a few cases, tokens may have been produced for both the opening and closing of the celebratory years, and the number could be up to ten. The early issues were produced in two to three sizes compatible with the regular coinage, but after 317 all tokens are small (approx. 15 mm, 1.5 g). No tokens are known from Constantine’s tricennalia, and it was only after his death that Festival of Isis tokens were produced again. The links to the 5-year celebrations show that the tokens were part of Constantine’s official propaganda. They were not an attempt by pagans in Rome to promote traditional religion.
Sample pages from the paper will be uploaded soon.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Niš & Byzantium, 2016
The most discussed and controversial of all ancient bronze coins is the so called Pannonian cap c... more The most discussed and controversial of all ancient bronze coins is the so called Pannonian cap coin, discovered in 2003, showing Constantine I wearing a pillbox cap. We have examined every detail of this coin through stereoscopic wet and dry study, physical probing, iconographical analysis, die matching, and two types of radiological analyses: XEDS and micro-CT scanning. Each individual way of investigation indicates that the coin is ancient, and we are confident that it was produced in 318-319 CE. It shares the obverse die with a second Cap coin, discovered in 2012, which is thus also ancient. We identify the reverse die of the 2003 coin as engraved by an Imperial Mint engraver, and since the two coins share the same obverse die, it is likely but not certain that they were produced at the Imperial Mint of Siscia. Nor is it certain that they were officially sanctioned. We show that headgear seen on early 4th C art - including the porphyry tetrarchs in Venice and Niš; the Arch of Constantine; the great hunt mosaic in the Roman villa at Piazza Armerina; and on numerous palaeochristian sarcophagi - conventionally identified as the “Pannonian cap” of Vegetius, is in fact the headgear of the lictors – the state-paid summoners - at the time. We accordingly identify the pillbox cap on the two coins as that of a lictor.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Niš & Byzantium XI, pp. 409-456, 2013
Combining numismatic and epigraphic evidence, Constantine’s vicennial celebration journey from Ni... more Combining numismatic and epigraphic evidence, Constantine’s vicennial celebration journey from Nicomedia to Rome is reconstructed. Donatives were produced on each major stop along the way. Newly discovered dynastic bronzes struck in Rome on Constantine’s arrival include Crispus, which shows that the caesar still was alive. The subsequent issue struck in Rome, before Constantine’s departure, lacks Crispus. The caesar thus fell from grace during the vicennial celebrations in Rome in July-August 326. The study identifies and defines all major vicennial celebration issues struck by Constantine. The illustrated examples include 38 gold solidi and multiples, 12 siliquae, 29 dynastic bronzes, and several forgeries.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Numismatische Zeitschrift, 2012
""Two related types of silver medallions appear to have been struck for the dedication of Constan... more ""Two related types of silver medallions appear to have been struck for the dedication of Constantinople on
11 May 330 A.D. The first, whose reverse depicts a seated figure of Constantinopolis, has been widely catalogued in numismatic literature.1 The second, whose reverse depicts the Dea Roma, has not. This article presents a catalogue of the known exemplars of both types: 15 of the first and 3 of the second. It proposes that these were struck to imitate the tetradrachms of Hellenistic rulers. This conclusion is based on six factors: 1) the average weight and module match those of Hellenistic tetradrachms; 2) the medallion is struck in silver; 3) the thickness and high relief mirror those of tetradrachms; 4) the obverse is anepigraphic with the head cropped high on the neck; 5) the format of the reverse legend is typical of tetradrachms, and the image of Tyche was common on them; 6) Constantine wears a diadem, a revival of a royal accoutrement typical of Hellenistic monarchs. In addition, the argument will be made that these issues constitute something of a
brief return to the tradition of civic coinage.
This is argued first because civic coinages, including the coins of Roman imperial Byzantium, regularly represent city Tychai, and secondly, because this type appears to have been issued only from the mint of a single city,
a highly unusual restriction in the fourth century AD. The medallion can be viewed as valuable iconographic evidence for the cult of Constantinople’s Tyche established by Constantine and of his interest in maintaining Hellenic religious traditions and promoting his new capital as a second Rome.""
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Niš & Byzantium, 2011
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
The Celator, 2009
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Papers: Palaeontology
Zoologica Scripta, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 395-411, Jan 1, 1991
The Lower Cambrian Chengjiang fauna is reviewed and shown to be closely comparable with the young... more The Lower Cambrian Chengjiang fauna is reviewed and shown to be closely comparable with the younger Burgess Shale fauna. but with various differences in detail. A diverse group of more or less annulated lobopod animals including ‘armoured lobopods’ are regarded as representatives of the phylum Onychophora. ‘Trilobitomorphs’ include several new types. Probable protaspides of the trilobitomorph Naraoia are described. No molluscs or deuterostomes have been identified. The preservational orientations of the various taxa are reviewed and compared with orientations of the Burgess Shale taxa. Orientation in the sediment is found to be closely correlated to the original shape of individuals. Several new genera and species are described: the segmented. worm-shaped Yunnanozoon lividum gen. et sp.n., the ‘armoured lobopods’ Onychodictyon ferox gen. et sp.n. and Cardiodictyon catenulum gen. et sp.n. and the arthropods Saperion glumaceum gen. et sp.n., Sinoburius Iunaris gen. et sp.n., and Xandarella spectaculum gen. et sp.n.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Nature, May 16, 1991
THERE is much interest in the early evolution of metazoans with the restudy of the Middle Cambria... more THERE is much interest in the early evolution of metazoans with the restudy of the Middle Cambrian 'soft-bodied' fauna of the Burgess Shale1. Several other, newly discovered Cambrian 'soft-bodied' faunas2 provide a wealth of new data. One of the oldest and best-preserved faunas was discovered in 1984 in Chengjiang in southern China3. This fauna is of early Cambrian age, about late Atdabanian4 (~520–530 Myr BP)2. We now describe a new 'armoured lobopod' from the Chengjiang fauna. This animal shows close affinity with the enigmatic Microdictyon 5. The conundrum Halludgenia 6 is reinterpreted as another 'armoured lobopod', as are Xenusion7 and Luolishania 8. The large plates set in pairs along the trunk are a synapomorphy of this group, which flourished soon after the 'Cambrian explosion'. Soft-part anatomy suggests that the group has affinities with the Burgess Shale 'lobopod' Aysheaia 9. All these marine, Cambrian forms are here grouped with the extant, terrestrial velvet worms in the phylum Onychophora.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Lethaia, Apr 15, 1992
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
In: Edgecombe, G.D. (ed.): Arthropod Fossils and Phylogeny, 107-150. New York: Columbia University Press., 1998
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Marine animals related to Recent onychophorans form a significant component in Cambrian faunas. T... more Marine animals related to Recent onychophorans form a significant component in Cambrian faunas. Twelve characters are analysed for homologies in the seven best known Cambrian onychophorans. New morphological evidence and homology analyses for several characters indicate an anteroposterior reversal of Hallucigenia and Microdictyon. Proposed expansion of the trunk in Microdictyon during compaction is rejected. A jaw is tentatively identified in Onychodictyon. The shape of the annulations and the disposition of the tenth leg pair in Aysheaia are reinterpreted, and the suggestion of two somites to the first appendage pair is rejected. A suggested morphocline may mirror the phylogeny of the group. The taxonomic confusion surrounding the supposed radiolarian family Eoconchariidae is cleared.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Uploads
Papers: Numismatics / Roman History
The four known contemporary SP imitations are described, as are 22 modern forgeries. The evolution of Constantine’s diadem is detailed. Most important, the first diadems to appear in the bronze coinage can be dated to the later part of Constantine’s return journey from his vicennial celebrations. None are earlier than early/mid 327, without exception. The importance of the tie loop for chronology is presented. Coin production features such as the centering mark and compass circles are described.
Numerous hypotheses for the purpose and message of the SPES PVBLIC coins are reviewed, but the evidence is inconclusive. The view is forwarded that the SP type cannot be seen isolated but must be analyzed as one of four related types in the two 4-type emissions of GR, GE, LP, and SP. These in turn must be considered in the light of the disastrous vicennial celebration journey, during which Constantine had his eldest son, his wife, his nephew and many others killed. After the murders, Constantine travelled very slowly back from Rome to Constantinople. He must have made sure that his position was not threatened, and he would have made plans for a different future. These were the circumstances when the SPES PVBLIC type was introduced.
All credible reports of the Chi-Rho and the staurogram from the time of Constantine are reviewed and the hypotheses for their origins are discussed. The earliest depictions of the Chi-Rho are found on two North African milestones, securely dated to October 312 – April 313. The SP coins of Constantine I have been regarded since the 1500s as proof of Constantine’s conversion to Christianity. Evidence is presented here that Constantine’s Chi-Rho was a victory sign which later took on a Christian significance. The reports of Chi-Rho’s from under the Basilica of St Peter and from the Domus Faustae, both in Rome, are rejected here. The earliest credible occurrences of the Chi-Rho in a Christian context are on a tombstone from 324, and in Porphyrius’ poem no. 8, dating from before 326.
The sign described by Lactantius was a staurogram. There is no evidence that the staurogram predates Constantine. Previous datings of the staurogram in papyri have been revised, the graffiti occurrence (if it exists) may be post-Constantinian, and the earliest occurrence on coins is from 336 CE.
Sample pages from the paper will be uploaded soon.
11 May 330 A.D. The first, whose reverse depicts a seated figure of Constantinopolis, has been widely catalogued in numismatic literature.1 The second, whose reverse depicts the Dea Roma, has not. This article presents a catalogue of the known exemplars of both types: 15 of the first and 3 of the second. It proposes that these were struck to imitate the tetradrachms of Hellenistic rulers. This conclusion is based on six factors: 1) the average weight and module match those of Hellenistic tetradrachms; 2) the medallion is struck in silver; 3) the thickness and high relief mirror those of tetradrachms; 4) the obverse is anepigraphic with the head cropped high on the neck; 5) the format of the reverse legend is typical of tetradrachms, and the image of Tyche was common on them; 6) Constantine wears a diadem, a revival of a royal accoutrement typical of Hellenistic monarchs. In addition, the argument will be made that these issues constitute something of a
brief return to the tradition of civic coinage.
This is argued first because civic coinages, including the coins of Roman imperial Byzantium, regularly represent city Tychai, and secondly, because this type appears to have been issued only from the mint of a single city,
a highly unusual restriction in the fourth century AD. The medallion can be viewed as valuable iconographic evidence for the cult of Constantinople’s Tyche established by Constantine and of his interest in maintaining Hellenic religious traditions and promoting his new capital as a second Rome.""
Papers: Palaeontology
The four known contemporary SP imitations are described, as are 22 modern forgeries. The evolution of Constantine’s diadem is detailed. Most important, the first diadems to appear in the bronze coinage can be dated to the later part of Constantine’s return journey from his vicennial celebrations. None are earlier than early/mid 327, without exception. The importance of the tie loop for chronology is presented. Coin production features such as the centering mark and compass circles are described.
Numerous hypotheses for the purpose and message of the SPES PVBLIC coins are reviewed, but the evidence is inconclusive. The view is forwarded that the SP type cannot be seen isolated but must be analyzed as one of four related types in the two 4-type emissions of GR, GE, LP, and SP. These in turn must be considered in the light of the disastrous vicennial celebration journey, during which Constantine had his eldest son, his wife, his nephew and many others killed. After the murders, Constantine travelled very slowly back from Rome to Constantinople. He must have made sure that his position was not threatened, and he would have made plans for a different future. These were the circumstances when the SPES PVBLIC type was introduced.
All credible reports of the Chi-Rho and the staurogram from the time of Constantine are reviewed and the hypotheses for their origins are discussed. The earliest depictions of the Chi-Rho are found on two North African milestones, securely dated to October 312 – April 313. The SP coins of Constantine I have been regarded since the 1500s as proof of Constantine’s conversion to Christianity. Evidence is presented here that Constantine’s Chi-Rho was a victory sign which later took on a Christian significance. The reports of Chi-Rho’s from under the Basilica of St Peter and from the Domus Faustae, both in Rome, are rejected here. The earliest credible occurrences of the Chi-Rho in a Christian context are on a tombstone from 324, and in Porphyrius’ poem no. 8, dating from before 326.
The sign described by Lactantius was a staurogram. There is no evidence that the staurogram predates Constantine. Previous datings of the staurogram in papyri have been revised, the graffiti occurrence (if it exists) may be post-Constantinian, and the earliest occurrence on coins is from 336 CE.
Sample pages from the paper will be uploaded soon.
11 May 330 A.D. The first, whose reverse depicts a seated figure of Constantinopolis, has been widely catalogued in numismatic literature.1 The second, whose reverse depicts the Dea Roma, has not. This article presents a catalogue of the known exemplars of both types: 15 of the first and 3 of the second. It proposes that these were struck to imitate the tetradrachms of Hellenistic rulers. This conclusion is based on six factors: 1) the average weight and module match those of Hellenistic tetradrachms; 2) the medallion is struck in silver; 3) the thickness and high relief mirror those of tetradrachms; 4) the obverse is anepigraphic with the head cropped high on the neck; 5) the format of the reverse legend is typical of tetradrachms, and the image of Tyche was common on them; 6) Constantine wears a diadem, a revival of a royal accoutrement typical of Hellenistic monarchs. In addition, the argument will be made that these issues constitute something of a
brief return to the tradition of civic coinage.
This is argued first because civic coinages, including the coins of Roman imperial Byzantium, regularly represent city Tychai, and secondly, because this type appears to have been issued only from the mint of a single city,
a highly unusual restriction in the fourth century AD. The medallion can be viewed as valuable iconographic evidence for the cult of Constantinople’s Tyche established by Constantine and of his interest in maintaining Hellenic religious traditions and promoting his new capital as a second Rome.""
- The die metal may have differed between obverse and reverse dies, as indicated by die clashing, but other explanations may be found.
- Magnifying lenses were known and were perhaps used for engraving the finest features but were probably not needed for engraving dies for standard coins.
- There is no evidence for the use of hubs or piece-punches in official coinage, not even for individual letter-punches.
- Only large features were gouged whereas most details – including the legends – were punched.
- The emperor's face received much more care in execution, especially smoothing, than other features.
- There was one set of punches for the legends and another for the central theme, possibly indicating different engravers.
- The legends were always engraved in reading direction, indicating that the engravers were literate.
The full results of this research was published in 2016 as “Methods for Authenticating Ancient Bronze Coins: A Case Study of Constantine's "Pannonian Cap" Coin”. The paper is available here on Academia.edu as the first paper listed above.
Constantine re-introduced Festival of Isis tesserae for New Year 313 immediately after defeating Maxentius and taking Rome.
Constantine issued tesserae annually 313 – 318. Post-318 tesserae may be restricted to Constantine’s five-year celebrations 320-321, 325-326, and 330-331.
Constantine issued imperial issues only, in the name of himself and other members of the imperial houses.
Early issues were produced in three sizes compatible with the regular coinage. All were struck in bronze, not brass.
All tesserae were produced at the imperial mint of Rome, with dies cut by the regular die-cutters.
These tesserae were part of Constantine’s official propaganda.
They were issued for the 5 March Festival of Isis, but the written messages propagate the emperor Constantine and his family.
They were not an attempt by pagans in Rome to promote traditional religion.