The Iron Age was a period of change, with many innovations in the glass-making technology. The ch... more The Iron Age was a period of change, with many innovations in the glass-making technology. The chemical composition of the set of objects considered in the present study demonstrates the diversity of the raw materials used and the depth of knowledge about the manipulation of glass appearance in the eighth-sixth centuries BCE. The study was carried out using fibre optics reflection spectroscopy and portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry at the museums' premises to examine a large number of glass beads and preliminarily group them on the basis of their composition and spectral characteristics. In addition, a smaller set of selected samples was analysed by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to provide a comprehensive chemical characterisation of the material. The compositional data indicated that the samples belonged to the high magnesium and low magnesium glass compositional types. Only one sample was recognised as low magnesium medium potassium glass. Glasses within each group were made from different sands, suggesting different provenances. Some of the samples were suggested to be of local origin, while the others were interpreted as imported glass. Evidence of glass colouring, decolouring and recycling are also discussed.
L'età del ferro fu un periodo straordinario per lo sviluppo della tecnologia del vetro e la sua d... more L'età del ferro fu un periodo straordinario per lo sviluppo della tecnologia del vetro e la sua diffusione nel Mediterraneo. Le comunità che popolavano quella che oggi è l'Italia centrale subirono profondi cambiamenti durante questo periodo, formando società più complesse, sviluppando centri proto-urbani e urbani e inserendosi in un'ampia rete commerciale del Mar Mediterraneo e oltre. Gli oggetti in vetro di questa piccola regione si trovano frequentemente in sepolture datate alla prima metà del I millennio a.C., con piccole perle blu con semplici occhielli ad anello tra i tipi più abbondanti. Cinquantasei oggetti di questo tipo (sia perline intere che frammenti) sono stati studiati con un approccio non invasivo attraverso la microscopia ottica, la spettroscopia di riflettanza a fibre ottiche e la spettroscopia di fluorescenza a raggi X portatile. Le analisi sono state condotte presso il Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia e il Museo delle Civilt'a (entrambi a Roma, Italia). Cinque campioni del set principale sono stati analizzati anche con un microscopio elettronico a scansione accoppiato a uno spettrometro a dispersione di energia. I dati hanno fornito informazioni preliminari sulle materie prime utilizzate per la preparazione del vetro, sulle tecniche di fabbricazione e hanno offerto alcuni spunti per localizzare (provvisoriamente) la regione di provenienza. In particolare, le analisi hanno stabilito che le perle sono vetro sodo-siliceo e che la fonte di cobalto, utilizzato come colorante blu, potrebbe essere un minerale proveniente dall'Egitto. All'interno di questo quadro generale, un gruppo più piccolo ha mostrato un modello compositivo diverso. Questi risultati preliminari apportano nuove conoscenze per tracciare le rotte di scambio all'interno del Mediterraneo durante l'Età del Ferro.
Four glass beads from a Scythian burial on the island of Khortytsia (Southern Ukraine) were subje... more Four glass beads from a Scythian burial on the island of Khortytsia (Southern Ukraine) were subjected to 3D imaging using micro-CT and photogrammetry. The aim was to reconstruct the process used to produce and decorate the beads by detecting and interpreting the traces left by the technological processes on the bead surface and in the glass body. It turned out that all the beads were obtained by winding hot glass around the mandrel. The distribution, size and shape of the bubbles in the glass matrix revealed by the micro-CT scans and the features observed during a thorough examination of the photogrammetric models allowed us to follow the movements of the bead maker during the formation of the bead body and its decoration, highlighting several details of the production processes such as the number of the superimposed layers and the direction of the rotation of the mandrel during both the formation of the body and the decoration of the bead. Some information about the tools also emer...
Un assemblaggio di oggetti in vetro dall'aspetto nero (prevalentemente perline), datato al IX-VII... more Un assemblaggio di oggetti in vetro dall'aspetto nero (prevalentemente perline), datato al IX-VII secolo a.C. e rinvenuto in contesti dell'Età del Ferro dell'Etruria meridionale e del Lazio (Italia centrale), è stato analizzato utilizzando la spettrometria di fluorescenza a raggi X portatile, l'ablazione laser-plasma accoppiato induttivamente - la spettrometria di massa e la spettroscopia micro-Raman. L'approccio analitico ci ha permesso di discutere la tecnologia di produzione del vetro in un periodo di rilevanti cambiamenti tecnologici. Ne è emerso che il vetro che giungeva nella penisola italiana era alquanto diverso, da un punto di vista compositivo, sia dai periodi precedenti che da quelli successivi. I dati raccolti hanno mostrato che il ferro - il principale colorante di questi vetri - era ottenuto da diverse fonti, così come la silice - il principale componente del vetro. La calce, uno dei principali costituenti di molti tipi di vetro, ha un ruolo modesto in questo assemblaggio, che pone questi campioni in una posizione speciale a causa della particolare formula del lotto. Almeno tre centri di produzione del vetro grezzo sono suggeriti dai dati compositivi, ma in ogni caso il vetro è stato importato nella penisola italiana.
Vitreous finds from the Iron Age archaeological complex at Bilsk (Ukraine) as evidence of trade by land and sea, 2024
The Bilsk archaeological complex comprises the remains of many structures associated with an impr... more The Bilsk archaeological complex comprises the remains of many structures associated with an impressive Iron Age fortified site and extends over a vast area in central-east Ukraine. Its importance is marked by the presence of apparently imported objects, including some vitreous ones (represented mainly by glass and faience beads), which provide researchers with materials for studying past trade in the area. A representative set of vitreous fragments was subjected to an analytical study with several instrumental techniques (namely: scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectrometry, laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, micro-Raman spectroscopy and micro-X-ray diffraction) in order to characterise the beads on compositional basis. The complementary data from different techniques revealed a complex picture for the raw materials, identifying several sources of silica and, consequently, several production centres for the items included in the analysed set. This information in turn led to a better understanding of the trade networks that operated in the region between the 7th and 4th century BCE. Colouring and opacifying agents are also discussed.
This work reports the results of the analyses performed on a set of glass finds from the
“Gaetano... more This work reports the results of the analyses performed on a set of glass finds from the “Gaetano Chierici” collection in the Civic Museums of Reggio Emilia. Forty-eight typologically heterogeneous glass finds were included in the list of the analyzed objects, dating from the fifth century BCE to the first century CE. The objects primarily consisted of glass beads; however, bangles, pinheads, and one vessel fragment were also included in the set. The items were analyzed using noninvasive spectroscopic methods that were implemented with portable equipment on the museum’s premises. Fiber optic reflectance spectroscopy was used to identify the coloring species in the glass matrix, while X-ray fluorescence spectrometry provided compositional information. Both techniques allowed for a discussion of the mechanisms of coloring and opacification, as well as the raw materials used for this purpose. The results provided a complex picture of the various colorants used to manipulate the appearance of the glass, which was a crucial aspect in the creation of the personal adornments represented by these glass items. The data revealed evidence of different sources of raw glass and colorants. Most of the samples were colored with cobalt, but iron and copper also influenced the color of many of them. Both white and yellow were utilized for the glass decorations, and these colors were achieved with the addition of either antimony-containing crystals or tin-containing ones. This finding suggests that the transition from antimonate to stannate started as early as the second century BCE. The “Gaetano Chierici” collection contains representative objects distributed throughout the investigated period. The results obtained here are a starting point for future studies of glass technology and provenance in the area.
The Iron Age was a remarkable period in glass technology development and its spread across the Me... more The Iron Age was a remarkable period in glass technology development and its spread across the Mediterranean. Communities that populated what is nowadays Central Italy underwent profound changes during this period forming more complex societies, developing proto-urban and urban centres, and incorporating into a wide trade network of the Mediterranean Sea and beyond. Glass objects in that small region are frequently found in burial sites dated to the first half of the first millennium BCE, with small blue beads with simple ring eyes being among the most abundant types. Fifty-six objects of this type (both whole beads and fragments) were studied with a noninvasive approach by means of Optical Microscopy, Fibre Optics Reflectance Spectroscopy, and portable X-ray Fluorescence spectroscopy. The analyses were conducted at the Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia and at the Museo delle Civilt`a (both in Rome, Italy). Five samples from the main set were also analysed with a Scanning Electron Microscope coupled to an Energy Dispersive Spectrometer. The data gave preliminary information on the raw materials used to prepare the glass, the manufacturing techniques, and offered some hints to (tentatively) locate the region of provenance. In particular, the analyses established that the beads are soda-lime-silica glass and the source of cobalt, used as the blue colorant, could be an ore from Egypt. Within this general frame, a smaller group showed a different compositional pattern. These preliminary results contribute new knowledge for tracing exchange routes within the Mediterranean during the Iron Age.
The aim of this study is to establish the nature of the remains of the glass industry found at th... more The aim of this study is to establish the nature of the remains of the glass industry found at the ancient Greek archaeological site on the Yahorlyk bay shore (North Black Sea region, Ukraine), dated to the 7th-5th centuries BCE. A multi-analytical, non-destructive approach that compares the chemical and mineralogical composition of glass fragments with that of sand collected in the vicinity of the archaeological site was used in order to determine the local or non-local origin of the glass artefacts. To this end, a comprehensive characterization of all the materials was performed by means of XRF, VP-SEM-EDS, LA-ICP-MS and XRD. In parallel, an attempt was made to reconstruct the manufacturing process of the glass objects with an emphasis on the recipe used and how the colour was achieved. The results will contribute important new information to the literature concerning glass circulation in the Black Sea region; Resumo: Com esta dissertação pretendeu-se determinar a natureza dos obj...
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy is a non-destructive technique employed for elemental analysis of... more X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy is a non-destructive technique employed for elemental analysis of a wide range of materials. Its advantages are especially valued in archaeometry, where portable instruments are available. Considering ancient glass, such instruments allow for the detection of some major, minor, and trace elements linked to the deliberate addition of specific components or to impurities in the raw materials of the glass batch. Besides some undoubted advantages, portable XRF (p-XRF) has some limitations that are addressed in this study. The performance assessment of four different p-XRF units and the reconciling of their output were conducted. The results show the limitations in cross-referencing the data obtained from each unit and suggest procedures to overcome the issues. The p-XRF units were tested on the set of Corning reference glasses and on a small set of archaeological glasses with known composition. The compatibility of the output was assessed using multivaria...
Several types of (mostly) blue-green glass beads from Iron-Age archaeological sites in Central It... more Several types of (mostly) blue-green glass beads from Iron-Age archaeological sites in Central Italy were studied using a range of spectroscopic techniques: portable X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometry, Fibre Optics Reflectance Spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry, micro-Raman spectroscopy and Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Complementary information was gathered from each technique and discussed in the frame of the archaeological typology of the objects. The systematic evaluation of the results allowed us to draw some conclusions on the raw materials employed for primary production and to highlight some provenance indicators in the glass. Some of the beads found in the Iron Age (IA) contexts were preliminarily attributed to the Final Bronze Age (FBA) production based on their typology, and the compositional data obtained in this work confirmed that they were low magnesium high potassium (LMHK) glass, t...
Several types of (mostly) blue-green glass beads from Iron-Age archaeological sites in Central It... more Several types of (mostly) blue-green glass beads from Iron-Age archaeological sites in Central Italy were studied using a range of spectroscopic techniques: portable X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometry, Fibre Optics Reflectance Spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry, micro-Raman spectroscopy and Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Complementary information was gathered from each technique and discussed in the frame of the archaeological typology of the objects. The systematic evaluation of the results allowed us to draw some conclusions on the raw materials employed for primary production and to highlight some provenance indicators in the glass. Some of the beads found in the Iron Age (IA) contexts were preliminarily attributed to the Final Bronze Age (FBA) production based on their typology, and the compositional data obtained in this work confirmed that they were low magnesium high potassium (LMHK) glass, typical of FBA in the Italian peninsula. Other beads were assigned to low magnesium glass (LMG) or high magnesium glass (HMG), thus giving further information on the fluxing agents employed in the Early Iron Age (EIA) and beyond. Colour variations among the beads reflected their chemical composition, with different bead typologies coloured in a specific way. In some instances, it was possible to establish different origins for the colouring raw materials. The provenance of the samples was difficult to place, but the chemical evidence suggested a subdivision within the raw glass used to produce the beads: for one set of samples, a local origin of the glass could be hypothesised, whereas several production sites in the Near East were suggested for most of the beads considered in this study. Some preliminary clues for the local working of imported glass were also highlighted for one typological group.
Due to the absence of direct data on glass-making facilities in the Mediterranean Europe prior to... more Due to the absence of direct data on glass-making facilities in the Mediterranean Europe prior to the Hellenistic period, the Yahorlyk workshop (VI century BC) gains a particular importance. The workshop is situated along the coast of Yahorlyk bay, a shallow and long body of water in the Southern Ukraine, Kherson region. It was investigated on numerous occasions since 1972 and yielded abundant evidence of iron-production and bronze-working. The glass objects (remains of vitreous by-products, broken and complete beads etc.) are also common. Over 60 samples of glass were analyzed by A.S. Ostroverkhov and V.A. Galibin in 1980-ies. These results eneabled A.S. Ostroverkhov to put forward a hypothesis of local glass production at the Yahorlyk site. This paper tests this hypothesis on the basis of re-analysis of old dataset and a small series of samples treated by modern, enhanced methods of chemical analysis XRF, SEM-EDS and ICPMS in Hercules laboratory at Evora (Portugal). The old dataset, when revisited, revealed evidence of three types of glass that were worked by Yahorlyk craftsmen: low magnesia, high magnesia and a particular “third” type, which characteristic for glass pieces of undefined shape. These types are not only different by ratio of potassium and magnesium but also have a variable chemical composition in general. Namely, the percentage of alumina varies greatly: it are almost absent in low magnesia glass and relatively high in high magnesia glass. It is low in the objects of the “third” type as well, making this chemical type similar to low magnesia glass. The samples of sands were selected at different outcrops around the settlement and the content of rare earth elements (REE) was studied. Several samples were rejected as possible sources of sand for glass production. However, two samples (Qua and Iv-s) demonstrate significant similarities with REE composition in glass beads from Yahorlyk site. Low magnesia glass beads (biconical beads) form two distinct groups on the graph of REE. Thus, at least two different types of sands were employed in their production. None of the local sand samples resembles chemical composition of biconical beads. Low magnesia glass was imported from elsewhere and the beads were produced from that material on the site. High magnesia glass beads (mostly eye-beads) appear to correlate in the REE graphs of two sand samples Qua (sand from a quarry on the southern coast of Dnieper bay) and Iv-s (sand from the plane where one of the Dnieper presently non-existent branches entered Yahorlyk bay). The latter has too high content of alumina to be a source of sand for the beads analyzed recently. However, there were several beads with equally high alumina content in the old dataset. The former sediment sample (Qua) corresponds the REE composition of high magnesia beads from the Yahorlyk site and can be a source of raw material for their production. High magnesia glass could be produced at the Yahorlyk workhop and later worked into eye beads there. Thus, new analyses proved an old hypothesis of A.S. Ostroverkov about local glass-making at the Yahorlyk workshop. This fact makes the site of Yahorlyk a crucial archaeological source for research on Archaic glass-working in the Pontic region as well as in the ancient Greece and Mediterranean basin in general.
У статті висвітлено результати вивчення скляних намистин з Ягорлицького поселення та зразків піск... more У статті висвітлено результати вивчення скляних намистин з Ягорлицького поселення та зразків піску довкола нього. У дослідженні використовувались методи природничих наук, а саме XRF, SEM-EDS та ICPMS. Хімічний склад намистин із золистого скла та піску свідчить про їх спорідненість за макроелементами та рідкісноземельними елементами. Отримані результати підтверджують гіпотезу А.С. Островерхова про місцеве виробництво скла.
The Iron Age was a period of change, with many innovations in the glass-making technology. The ch... more The Iron Age was a period of change, with many innovations in the glass-making technology. The chemical composition of the set of objects considered in the present study demonstrates the diversity of the raw materials used and the depth of knowledge about the manipulation of glass appearance in the eighth-sixth centuries BCE. The study was carried out using fibre optics reflection spectroscopy and portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry at the museums' premises to examine a large number of glass beads and preliminarily group them on the basis of their composition and spectral characteristics. In addition, a smaller set of selected samples was analysed by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to provide a comprehensive chemical characterisation of the material. The compositional data indicated that the samples belonged to the high magnesium and low magnesium glass compositional types. Only one sample was recognised as low magnesium medium potassium glass. Glasses within each group were made from different sands, suggesting different provenances. Some of the samples were suggested to be of local origin, while the others were interpreted as imported glass. Evidence of glass colouring, decolouring and recycling are also discussed.
L'età del ferro fu un periodo straordinario per lo sviluppo della tecnologia del vetro e la sua d... more L'età del ferro fu un periodo straordinario per lo sviluppo della tecnologia del vetro e la sua diffusione nel Mediterraneo. Le comunità che popolavano quella che oggi è l'Italia centrale subirono profondi cambiamenti durante questo periodo, formando società più complesse, sviluppando centri proto-urbani e urbani e inserendosi in un'ampia rete commerciale del Mar Mediterraneo e oltre. Gli oggetti in vetro di questa piccola regione si trovano frequentemente in sepolture datate alla prima metà del I millennio a.C., con piccole perle blu con semplici occhielli ad anello tra i tipi più abbondanti. Cinquantasei oggetti di questo tipo (sia perline intere che frammenti) sono stati studiati con un approccio non invasivo attraverso la microscopia ottica, la spettroscopia di riflettanza a fibre ottiche e la spettroscopia di fluorescenza a raggi X portatile. Le analisi sono state condotte presso il Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia e il Museo delle Civilt'a (entrambi a Roma, Italia). Cinque campioni del set principale sono stati analizzati anche con un microscopio elettronico a scansione accoppiato a uno spettrometro a dispersione di energia. I dati hanno fornito informazioni preliminari sulle materie prime utilizzate per la preparazione del vetro, sulle tecniche di fabbricazione e hanno offerto alcuni spunti per localizzare (provvisoriamente) la regione di provenienza. In particolare, le analisi hanno stabilito che le perle sono vetro sodo-siliceo e che la fonte di cobalto, utilizzato come colorante blu, potrebbe essere un minerale proveniente dall'Egitto. All'interno di questo quadro generale, un gruppo più piccolo ha mostrato un modello compositivo diverso. Questi risultati preliminari apportano nuove conoscenze per tracciare le rotte di scambio all'interno del Mediterraneo durante l'Età del Ferro.
Four glass beads from a Scythian burial on the island of Khortytsia (Southern Ukraine) were subje... more Four glass beads from a Scythian burial on the island of Khortytsia (Southern Ukraine) were subjected to 3D imaging using micro-CT and photogrammetry. The aim was to reconstruct the process used to produce and decorate the beads by detecting and interpreting the traces left by the technological processes on the bead surface and in the glass body. It turned out that all the beads were obtained by winding hot glass around the mandrel. The distribution, size and shape of the bubbles in the glass matrix revealed by the micro-CT scans and the features observed during a thorough examination of the photogrammetric models allowed us to follow the movements of the bead maker during the formation of the bead body and its decoration, highlighting several details of the production processes such as the number of the superimposed layers and the direction of the rotation of the mandrel during both the formation of the body and the decoration of the bead. Some information about the tools also emer...
Un assemblaggio di oggetti in vetro dall'aspetto nero (prevalentemente perline), datato al IX-VII... more Un assemblaggio di oggetti in vetro dall'aspetto nero (prevalentemente perline), datato al IX-VII secolo a.C. e rinvenuto in contesti dell'Età del Ferro dell'Etruria meridionale e del Lazio (Italia centrale), è stato analizzato utilizzando la spettrometria di fluorescenza a raggi X portatile, l'ablazione laser-plasma accoppiato induttivamente - la spettrometria di massa e la spettroscopia micro-Raman. L'approccio analitico ci ha permesso di discutere la tecnologia di produzione del vetro in un periodo di rilevanti cambiamenti tecnologici. Ne è emerso che il vetro che giungeva nella penisola italiana era alquanto diverso, da un punto di vista compositivo, sia dai periodi precedenti che da quelli successivi. I dati raccolti hanno mostrato che il ferro - il principale colorante di questi vetri - era ottenuto da diverse fonti, così come la silice - il principale componente del vetro. La calce, uno dei principali costituenti di molti tipi di vetro, ha un ruolo modesto in questo assemblaggio, che pone questi campioni in una posizione speciale a causa della particolare formula del lotto. Almeno tre centri di produzione del vetro grezzo sono suggeriti dai dati compositivi, ma in ogni caso il vetro è stato importato nella penisola italiana.
Vitreous finds from the Iron Age archaeological complex at Bilsk (Ukraine) as evidence of trade by land and sea, 2024
The Bilsk archaeological complex comprises the remains of many structures associated with an impr... more The Bilsk archaeological complex comprises the remains of many structures associated with an impressive Iron Age fortified site and extends over a vast area in central-east Ukraine. Its importance is marked by the presence of apparently imported objects, including some vitreous ones (represented mainly by glass and faience beads), which provide researchers with materials for studying past trade in the area. A representative set of vitreous fragments was subjected to an analytical study with several instrumental techniques (namely: scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectrometry, laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, micro-Raman spectroscopy and micro-X-ray diffraction) in order to characterise the beads on compositional basis. The complementary data from different techniques revealed a complex picture for the raw materials, identifying several sources of silica and, consequently, several production centres for the items included in the analysed set. This information in turn led to a better understanding of the trade networks that operated in the region between the 7th and 4th century BCE. Colouring and opacifying agents are also discussed.
This work reports the results of the analyses performed on a set of glass finds from the
“Gaetano... more This work reports the results of the analyses performed on a set of glass finds from the “Gaetano Chierici” collection in the Civic Museums of Reggio Emilia. Forty-eight typologically heterogeneous glass finds were included in the list of the analyzed objects, dating from the fifth century BCE to the first century CE. The objects primarily consisted of glass beads; however, bangles, pinheads, and one vessel fragment were also included in the set. The items were analyzed using noninvasive spectroscopic methods that were implemented with portable equipment on the museum’s premises. Fiber optic reflectance spectroscopy was used to identify the coloring species in the glass matrix, while X-ray fluorescence spectrometry provided compositional information. Both techniques allowed for a discussion of the mechanisms of coloring and opacification, as well as the raw materials used for this purpose. The results provided a complex picture of the various colorants used to manipulate the appearance of the glass, which was a crucial aspect in the creation of the personal adornments represented by these glass items. The data revealed evidence of different sources of raw glass and colorants. Most of the samples were colored with cobalt, but iron and copper also influenced the color of many of them. Both white and yellow were utilized for the glass decorations, and these colors were achieved with the addition of either antimony-containing crystals or tin-containing ones. This finding suggests that the transition from antimonate to stannate started as early as the second century BCE. The “Gaetano Chierici” collection contains representative objects distributed throughout the investigated period. The results obtained here are a starting point for future studies of glass technology and provenance in the area.
The Iron Age was a remarkable period in glass technology development and its spread across the Me... more The Iron Age was a remarkable period in glass technology development and its spread across the Mediterranean. Communities that populated what is nowadays Central Italy underwent profound changes during this period forming more complex societies, developing proto-urban and urban centres, and incorporating into a wide trade network of the Mediterranean Sea and beyond. Glass objects in that small region are frequently found in burial sites dated to the first half of the first millennium BCE, with small blue beads with simple ring eyes being among the most abundant types. Fifty-six objects of this type (both whole beads and fragments) were studied with a noninvasive approach by means of Optical Microscopy, Fibre Optics Reflectance Spectroscopy, and portable X-ray Fluorescence spectroscopy. The analyses were conducted at the Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia and at the Museo delle Civilt`a (both in Rome, Italy). Five samples from the main set were also analysed with a Scanning Electron Microscope coupled to an Energy Dispersive Spectrometer. The data gave preliminary information on the raw materials used to prepare the glass, the manufacturing techniques, and offered some hints to (tentatively) locate the region of provenance. In particular, the analyses established that the beads are soda-lime-silica glass and the source of cobalt, used as the blue colorant, could be an ore from Egypt. Within this general frame, a smaller group showed a different compositional pattern. These preliminary results contribute new knowledge for tracing exchange routes within the Mediterranean during the Iron Age.
The aim of this study is to establish the nature of the remains of the glass industry found at th... more The aim of this study is to establish the nature of the remains of the glass industry found at the ancient Greek archaeological site on the Yahorlyk bay shore (North Black Sea region, Ukraine), dated to the 7th-5th centuries BCE. A multi-analytical, non-destructive approach that compares the chemical and mineralogical composition of glass fragments with that of sand collected in the vicinity of the archaeological site was used in order to determine the local or non-local origin of the glass artefacts. To this end, a comprehensive characterization of all the materials was performed by means of XRF, VP-SEM-EDS, LA-ICP-MS and XRD. In parallel, an attempt was made to reconstruct the manufacturing process of the glass objects with an emphasis on the recipe used and how the colour was achieved. The results will contribute important new information to the literature concerning glass circulation in the Black Sea region; Resumo: Com esta dissertação pretendeu-se determinar a natureza dos obj...
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy is a non-destructive technique employed for elemental analysis of... more X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy is a non-destructive technique employed for elemental analysis of a wide range of materials. Its advantages are especially valued in archaeometry, where portable instruments are available. Considering ancient glass, such instruments allow for the detection of some major, minor, and trace elements linked to the deliberate addition of specific components or to impurities in the raw materials of the glass batch. Besides some undoubted advantages, portable XRF (p-XRF) has some limitations that are addressed in this study. The performance assessment of four different p-XRF units and the reconciling of their output were conducted. The results show the limitations in cross-referencing the data obtained from each unit and suggest procedures to overcome the issues. The p-XRF units were tested on the set of Corning reference glasses and on a small set of archaeological glasses with known composition. The compatibility of the output was assessed using multivaria...
Several types of (mostly) blue-green glass beads from Iron-Age archaeological sites in Central It... more Several types of (mostly) blue-green glass beads from Iron-Age archaeological sites in Central Italy were studied using a range of spectroscopic techniques: portable X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometry, Fibre Optics Reflectance Spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry, micro-Raman spectroscopy and Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Complementary information was gathered from each technique and discussed in the frame of the archaeological typology of the objects. The systematic evaluation of the results allowed us to draw some conclusions on the raw materials employed for primary production and to highlight some provenance indicators in the glass. Some of the beads found in the Iron Age (IA) contexts were preliminarily attributed to the Final Bronze Age (FBA) production based on their typology, and the compositional data obtained in this work confirmed that they were low magnesium high potassium (LMHK) glass, t...
Several types of (mostly) blue-green glass beads from Iron-Age archaeological sites in Central It... more Several types of (mostly) blue-green glass beads from Iron-Age archaeological sites in Central Italy were studied using a range of spectroscopic techniques: portable X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometry, Fibre Optics Reflectance Spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry, micro-Raman spectroscopy and Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Complementary information was gathered from each technique and discussed in the frame of the archaeological typology of the objects. The systematic evaluation of the results allowed us to draw some conclusions on the raw materials employed for primary production and to highlight some provenance indicators in the glass. Some of the beads found in the Iron Age (IA) contexts were preliminarily attributed to the Final Bronze Age (FBA) production based on their typology, and the compositional data obtained in this work confirmed that they were low magnesium high potassium (LMHK) glass, typical of FBA in the Italian peninsula. Other beads were assigned to low magnesium glass (LMG) or high magnesium glass (HMG), thus giving further information on the fluxing agents employed in the Early Iron Age (EIA) and beyond. Colour variations among the beads reflected their chemical composition, with different bead typologies coloured in a specific way. In some instances, it was possible to establish different origins for the colouring raw materials. The provenance of the samples was difficult to place, but the chemical evidence suggested a subdivision within the raw glass used to produce the beads: for one set of samples, a local origin of the glass could be hypothesised, whereas several production sites in the Near East were suggested for most of the beads considered in this study. Some preliminary clues for the local working of imported glass were also highlighted for one typological group.
Due to the absence of direct data on glass-making facilities in the Mediterranean Europe prior to... more Due to the absence of direct data on glass-making facilities in the Mediterranean Europe prior to the Hellenistic period, the Yahorlyk workshop (VI century BC) gains a particular importance. The workshop is situated along the coast of Yahorlyk bay, a shallow and long body of water in the Southern Ukraine, Kherson region. It was investigated on numerous occasions since 1972 and yielded abundant evidence of iron-production and bronze-working. The glass objects (remains of vitreous by-products, broken and complete beads etc.) are also common. Over 60 samples of glass were analyzed by A.S. Ostroverkhov and V.A. Galibin in 1980-ies. These results eneabled A.S. Ostroverkhov to put forward a hypothesis of local glass production at the Yahorlyk site. This paper tests this hypothesis on the basis of re-analysis of old dataset and a small series of samples treated by modern, enhanced methods of chemical analysis XRF, SEM-EDS and ICPMS in Hercules laboratory at Evora (Portugal). The old dataset, when revisited, revealed evidence of three types of glass that were worked by Yahorlyk craftsmen: low magnesia, high magnesia and a particular “third” type, which characteristic for glass pieces of undefined shape. These types are not only different by ratio of potassium and magnesium but also have a variable chemical composition in general. Namely, the percentage of alumina varies greatly: it are almost absent in low magnesia glass and relatively high in high magnesia glass. It is low in the objects of the “third” type as well, making this chemical type similar to low magnesia glass. The samples of sands were selected at different outcrops around the settlement and the content of rare earth elements (REE) was studied. Several samples were rejected as possible sources of sand for glass production. However, two samples (Qua and Iv-s) demonstrate significant similarities with REE composition in glass beads from Yahorlyk site. Low magnesia glass beads (biconical beads) form two distinct groups on the graph of REE. Thus, at least two different types of sands were employed in their production. None of the local sand samples resembles chemical composition of biconical beads. Low magnesia glass was imported from elsewhere and the beads were produced from that material on the site. High magnesia glass beads (mostly eye-beads) appear to correlate in the REE graphs of two sand samples Qua (sand from a quarry on the southern coast of Dnieper bay) and Iv-s (sand from the plane where one of the Dnieper presently non-existent branches entered Yahorlyk bay). The latter has too high content of alumina to be a source of sand for the beads analyzed recently. However, there were several beads with equally high alumina content in the old dataset. The former sediment sample (Qua) corresponds the REE composition of high magnesia beads from the Yahorlyk site and can be a source of raw material for their production. High magnesia glass could be produced at the Yahorlyk workhop and later worked into eye beads there. Thus, new analyses proved an old hypothesis of A.S. Ostroverkov about local glass-making at the Yahorlyk workshop. This fact makes the site of Yahorlyk a crucial archaeological source for research on Archaic glass-working in the Pontic region as well as in the ancient Greece and Mediterranean basin in general.
У статті висвітлено результати вивчення скляних намистин з Ягорлицького поселення та зразків піск... more У статті висвітлено результати вивчення скляних намистин з Ягорлицького поселення та зразків піску довкола нього. У дослідженні використовувались методи природничих наук, а саме XRF, SEM-EDS та ICPMS. Хімічний склад намистин із золистого скла та піску свідчить про їх спорідненість за макроелементами та рідкісноземельними елементами. Отримані результати підтверджують гіпотезу А.С. Островерхова про місцеве виробництво скла.
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“Gaetano Chierici” collection in the Civic Museums of Reggio Emilia. Forty-eight typologically
heterogeneous glass finds were included in the list of the analyzed objects, dating from the fifth
century BCE to the first century CE. The objects primarily consisted of glass beads; however, bangles,
pinheads, and one vessel fragment were also included in the set. The items were analyzed using noninvasive
spectroscopic methods that were implemented with portable equipment on the museum’s
premises. Fiber optic reflectance spectroscopy was used to identify the coloring species in the glass
matrix, while X-ray fluorescence spectrometry provided compositional information. Both techniques
allowed for a discussion of the mechanisms of coloring and opacification, as well as the raw materials
used for this purpose. The results provided a complex picture of the various colorants used to
manipulate the appearance of the glass, which was a crucial aspect in the creation of the personal
adornments represented by these glass items. The data revealed evidence of different sources of raw
glass and colorants. Most of the samples were colored with cobalt, but iron and copper also influenced
the color of many of them. Both white and yellow were utilized for the glass decorations, and these
colors were achieved with the addition of either antimony-containing crystals or tin-containing
ones. This finding suggests that the transition from antimonate to stannate started as early as the
second century BCE. The “Gaetano Chierici” collection contains representative objects distributed
throughout the investigated period. The results obtained here are a starting point for future studies
of glass technology and provenance in the area.
The old dataset, when revisited, revealed evidence of three types of glass that were worked by Yahorlyk craftsmen: low magnesia, high magnesia and a particular “third” type, which characteristic for glass pieces of undefined shape. These types are not only different by ratio of potassium and magnesium but also have a variable chemical composition in general. Namely, the percentage of alumina varies greatly: it are almost absent in low magnesia glass and relatively high in high magnesia glass. It is low in the objects of the “third” type as well, making this chemical type similar to low magnesia glass.
The samples of sands were selected at different outcrops around the settlement and the content of rare earth elements (REE) was studied. Several samples were rejected as possible sources of sand for glass production. However, two samples (Qua and Iv-s) demonstrate significant similarities with REE composition in glass beads from Yahorlyk site.
Low magnesia glass beads (biconical beads) form two distinct groups on the graph of REE. Thus, at least two different types of sands were employed in their production. None of the local sand samples resembles chemical composition of biconical beads. Low magnesia glass was imported from elsewhere and the beads were produced from that material on the site.
High magnesia glass beads (mostly eye-beads) appear to correlate in the REE graphs of two sand samples Qua (sand from a quarry on the southern coast of Dnieper bay) and Iv-s (sand from the plane where one of the Dnieper presently non-existent branches entered Yahorlyk bay). The latter has too high content of alumina to be a source of sand for the beads analyzed recently. However, there were several beads with equally high alumina content in the old dataset. The former sediment sample (Qua) corresponds the REE composition of high magnesia beads from the Yahorlyk site and can be a source of raw material for their production. High magnesia glass could be produced at the Yahorlyk workhop and later worked into eye beads there.
Thus, new analyses proved an old hypothesis of A.S. Ostroverkov about local glass-making at the Yahorlyk workshop. This fact makes the site of Yahorlyk a crucial archaeological source for research on Archaic glass-working in the Pontic region as well as in the ancient Greece and Mediterranean basin in general.
Tradotto con DeepL.com (versione gratuita)
“Gaetano Chierici” collection in the Civic Museums of Reggio Emilia. Forty-eight typologically
heterogeneous glass finds were included in the list of the analyzed objects, dating from the fifth
century BCE to the first century CE. The objects primarily consisted of glass beads; however, bangles,
pinheads, and one vessel fragment were also included in the set. The items were analyzed using noninvasive
spectroscopic methods that were implemented with portable equipment on the museum’s
premises. Fiber optic reflectance spectroscopy was used to identify the coloring species in the glass
matrix, while X-ray fluorescence spectrometry provided compositional information. Both techniques
allowed for a discussion of the mechanisms of coloring and opacification, as well as the raw materials
used for this purpose. The results provided a complex picture of the various colorants used to
manipulate the appearance of the glass, which was a crucial aspect in the creation of the personal
adornments represented by these glass items. The data revealed evidence of different sources of raw
glass and colorants. Most of the samples were colored with cobalt, but iron and copper also influenced
the color of many of them. Both white and yellow were utilized for the glass decorations, and these
colors were achieved with the addition of either antimony-containing crystals or tin-containing
ones. This finding suggests that the transition from antimonate to stannate started as early as the
second century BCE. The “Gaetano Chierici” collection contains representative objects distributed
throughout the investigated period. The results obtained here are a starting point for future studies
of glass technology and provenance in the area.
The old dataset, when revisited, revealed evidence of three types of glass that were worked by Yahorlyk craftsmen: low magnesia, high magnesia and a particular “third” type, which characteristic for glass pieces of undefined shape. These types are not only different by ratio of potassium and magnesium but also have a variable chemical composition in general. Namely, the percentage of alumina varies greatly: it are almost absent in low magnesia glass and relatively high in high magnesia glass. It is low in the objects of the “third” type as well, making this chemical type similar to low magnesia glass.
The samples of sands were selected at different outcrops around the settlement and the content of rare earth elements (REE) was studied. Several samples were rejected as possible sources of sand for glass production. However, two samples (Qua and Iv-s) demonstrate significant similarities with REE composition in glass beads from Yahorlyk site.
Low magnesia glass beads (biconical beads) form two distinct groups on the graph of REE. Thus, at least two different types of sands were employed in their production. None of the local sand samples resembles chemical composition of biconical beads. Low magnesia glass was imported from elsewhere and the beads were produced from that material on the site.
High magnesia glass beads (mostly eye-beads) appear to correlate in the REE graphs of two sand samples Qua (sand from a quarry on the southern coast of Dnieper bay) and Iv-s (sand from the plane where one of the Dnieper presently non-existent branches entered Yahorlyk bay). The latter has too high content of alumina to be a source of sand for the beads analyzed recently. However, there were several beads with equally high alumina content in the old dataset. The former sediment sample (Qua) corresponds the REE composition of high magnesia beads from the Yahorlyk site and can be a source of raw material for their production. High magnesia glass could be produced at the Yahorlyk workhop and later worked into eye beads there.
Thus, new analyses proved an old hypothesis of A.S. Ostroverkov about local glass-making at the Yahorlyk workshop. This fact makes the site of Yahorlyk a crucial archaeological source for research on Archaic glass-working in the Pontic region as well as in the ancient Greece and Mediterranean basin in general.