ALTAISTICS, TURCOLOGY, MONGOLISTICS, Oct 1, 2020
The Cimmerian or Scythian raids, which are the sources of our study, point out the migrations mad... more The Cimmerian or Scythian raids, which are the sources of our study, point out the migrations made in order to plunder the richness of Anatolia. At least, researchers trying to infer from the statements of Herodotus agree with this opinion. Today, some researchers suggest that the Cimmerian or Scythian influence in Anatolia may not be as destructive as it is thought. Indeed, in order to talk about such destruction, we must be able to follow strong archaeological traces. Researchers today agree that these people who are alleged to have extremely harsh temperaments descending from the Trans-Caucasus are Cimmerians and Scythians. Western researchers have made some propositions about their identity. Some claim that they are Persian descendants, while others argue that they are of Altai origin. In order to answer these questions, we need a detailed catalogs that will provide us direct information. Arrowheads are unique materials from which we can create a catalog on this topic. It is possible to find these arrowheads in almost every museums in Anatolia. Most of them entered the inventory through purchasing, yet in-situ materials extracted from excavations are also quite a lot. The study deals with cataloging the Cimmerian / Scythian arrowheads that entered the inventory of Van, Kars and Erzurum museums by 2017.
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point out the migrations made in order to plunder the richness of Anatolia. At least, researchers trying to infer from the statements of Herodotus agree with this opinion. Today, some researchers suggest that the Cimmerian or Scythian influence in Anatolia may not be as destructive as it is thought. Indeed, in order to talk about such destruction, we must be able to follow strong archaeological traces.
Researchers today agree that these people who are alleged to have extremely harsh temperaments descending from the Trans-Caucasus are Cimmerians and Scythians. Western researchers have made some propositions about their identity. Some claim that they are Persian descendants, while others argue that they are of Altai origin. In order to answer these questions, we need a detailed catalogs that will provide us direct information. Arrowheads are unique materials from which
we can create a catalog on this topic.
It is possible to find these arrowheads in almost every museums in Anatolia. Most of them entered the inventory through purchasing, yet in-situ materials extracted from excavations are also quite a lot.
The study deals with cataloging the Cimmerian / Scythian arrowheads that entered the inventory of Van, Kars and Erzurum museums by 2017.
Similar to other topics related to nomads, archaeological reports are not considered as important as the Chinese chronicles. They are even ignored in some cases. However, if the Kagan had such an approach, the excavation materials could give direct answers to this question. One of the pieces of data that will help us in this regard was unearthed in the excavation held in 2001 in the Bilge Kaghan cultic site. A crown found in this excavation and named after the owner of the cultic site - the “Bilge Kaghan Treasure” - may offer a clue about the viewpoints of the ancient Turks (and Uighurs) to Buddhism.
This study proposes a different perspective on the approach of the ancient Turks to this religion.
Abstract
Two important concept related to burial customs, evolved in the belief of Turkic tribes in Early Medieval Ages. The first is inhumation that anyone dies in the steppe as anywhere else in the world have to bury somehow. The second is their cultic (memorial) sites; the structures built as an act of remembrance in honor of those who have died.
Archaeological and historical sources confirm that these cultic constructions were built mainly for representatives of the aristocrats. There are two different type of cultic sites in the steppe: The ones built for Kaghans (and their family members) are more complicated than the ones built for the Beghs (Lord, head of the tribe). Those built for the Beghs (and their families) are more common in the Steppe. A statue was placed in the east section of a square area made of slab stones and has a single stone line extending through east. Each stone in this line is called balbal. Different views exist among the researchers regarding the purpose of these stones, although many of them agree that each stone symbolizes the enemy killed by the buried in his lifetime.
Despite this, there are uncertainties regarding the purpose and functions of these line of stone. In this article, our inquiry focus on this confusion about the meaning of the concept and propose the probable function according to historical, archaeological and social data overlooked by researchers.
Key words: Balbal, non-anthropomorphic stele, Turkic Khaganate, cultic site, Eurasian nomads.
Gök Türklerin Balbal terimi üzerine bazı notlar
Öz
Erken Ortaçağ’da, Türklerin gömü adetleri arasında iki farklı gelenek gelişti: İlki, dünyanın herhangi başka bir yerinde olduğu gibi, ölen birisinin kendi kültür ve geleneklerine göre toprak altındaki ebedi istirahatgâhına bırakılmasıdır. Diğeri ise, ölülerin ardından onları anabilmek için geliştirilen kült (ritüel/hatıra) alanları.
Arkeolojik ve tarihi kaynaklar göstermektedir ki, bu kült alanları politik gücü ellerinde tutan Beyler (ve aileleri) için yapılmaktadır. Stepte bu tarzda yapılmış kült alanlarının iki farklı mimarisi vardır: Birinci tipe giren alanlar Kağan ve Kağan soylu kişiler için planlanırken, Boyların başındaki Beyler için planlanmış olanlar daha basit bir mimari içerirler. Blok taşlardan kare/dikdörtgen yapılmış bu kült alanlarının doğu kısmına, bir heykel ve yine doğuya doğru uzanan tek sıra taşlardan oluşan bir hat planlanmaktaydı. Balbal ismi verilen bu taşların ne anlama geldiği yönünde akademisyenler arasında bir görüş birliği var gibidir. Aralarında farklı düşünceler olsa da çoğu, yazılı kaynaklara dayanarak bu taşların ölen düşmanlar olduğu yönünde bir fikir ileri sürerler.
Arkeolojik ve yazılı kaynaklar karşılaştırıldığında, kabaca yontularak ya da tamamen uzun formlu taşlardan seçilen bu stellerin, farklı bir anlam taşıdığı da iddia edilebilir. Makale, bu kaynaklar arasındaki farklılıkları inceleyerek, araştırmacıların pek de dikkate almadığı arkeolojik, tarihi ve sosyolojik kavramları karşılaştırarak balbal kavramı hakkında farklı bir görüş ileri sürmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Balbal, baba, Gök Türk kağanlığı, kült alanı, Avrasya göçerleri.
Some Sassanid emperors had outstanding organizing capacity. Yet Shapur I was the 3rd emperor, aside capturing the Roman emperor Valerianus at Edassa war, took the necessary measurements to increase the fluidity of the economy. Khusru II was also a prominent emperor among the Sassanid Empire, he was considered as the last great King. He waged war with Romans as other Sassanid Kings, was able to lead his army up to shores of Constantinople but failed at the last of a long term war.
The circulation of Drachmae during the time of Khusru II, was so vast; and not only Arabs but other Central Asian countries as Kushans or Hephtalites used directly or indirectly Sassanid coins or casts in order to regulate their economic systems. Therefore, the inventories of major museums, generally have Khusru II's coins.
Bu yazının amacı, Nejat Diyarbekirli'nin farklı yönlerine değinmek olacaktır. Hayatı ile ilgili detaylar, adına çıkarılan hatıra kitabında bulunabilir.
In such a wide variety, there are two different lifestyles: Nomads and Farmers. While Altai and Tengri Mountains host Turkish people based on animal husbandry; plains, available for agriculture there were different people such as Sogdian, Tocharian, Chinese, Indian or Persian ... What intermix these two different lifestyles, is the trade (especially Silk Road).
The region that is the subject of our work is called Zhetysu (Semirechye in Russian [Seven river]), inhabited by the Turkish and Sogdian people at least since early Medieval. Balasagun, believed to be here, is important since it is the capital of a Khanate (Qarakhanids) whom were completely adapted to sedentary life with its administrators, bureaucrats and even some of its people. Nevertheless, there are still debates about the
location of this city.
Article tries to suggest a possible location (mound) of Balasagun, also discuss the other mounds in the region.
Manisa Castle located on the northern slope of the Mount Spil (formerly known as Sipylus) overlooking the Gediz Valley. The castle consists of two main parts: ‘citadel’ on the top of the hill and ‘outer wall’ (i.e. outer castle, bailey) on the hillside and extending in parallel to Manisa city. The oldest name of the city is Magnesia and the exact date of its foundation is unknown. Manisa was an important military base and, later, a center of the bishopric during the Byzantine period until it was captured by Saruhan Bey in the early 14th century. The city was incorporated into the Ottoman Beylik in the early 15th century. The Manisa Castle hosted significant cultures and survived to our time, unfortunately, largely ruined. The castle was extensively researched but still needs further examination. The aim of this study is to determine and document the castle, survey the walls that indicate to different periods, examine the structures inside the castle and their functions.
In this context, the latest situation of the castle, its inner and outer walls have been retained. We can say that the castle has three main stages. The cyclopean masonry, which was made from large stone blocks without mortar, represents the earliest stage. Although sporadically, traces of the cyclopean walls are still visible along the outer Wall.
Byzantine architecture dominates the Manisa Castle. The extant part of the castle was shaped by the repairs and additions performed during the period of John III Doukas Vatatzes. Manisa gained importance after the 12th century in the Byzantine period and became the center of imperial treasury and mint during the reign of Laskarids. Moreover, sources write that John III Doukas Vatatzes built a palace within the citadel. In line with the information, the survey was focused on terraces and structure remains in the outer wall. High and long retaining walls, the terraces they form, and regularly placed corbels on the retaining walls are striking. Balconies and loggias carried by corbels were frequently used in the Byzantine palace architecture. Corbeled retaining walls and terraces of outer castle suggest that the palace in the Manisa Castle might be in the outer castle.
When Saruhan Bey captured the city in 1313, Fetih Mosque and an adjacent fountain were built in the outer wall. The mosque’s location indicates that the initial Turkish settlement was inside the walls, which were repaired during the Turkish period. These repairs were documented in both architectural data and the archived data.
point out the migrations made in order to plunder the richness of Anatolia. At least, researchers trying to infer from the statements of Herodotus agree with this opinion. Today, some researchers suggest that the Cimmerian or Scythian influence in Anatolia may not be as destructive as it is thought. Indeed, in order to talk about such destruction, we must be able to follow strong archaeological traces.
Researchers today agree that these people who are alleged to have extremely harsh temperaments descending from the Trans-Caucasus are Cimmerians and Scythians. Western researchers have made some propositions about their identity. Some claim that they are Persian descendants, while others argue that they are of Altai origin. In order to answer these questions, we need a detailed catalogs that will provide us direct information. Arrowheads are unique materials from which
we can create a catalog on this topic.
It is possible to find these arrowheads in almost every museums in Anatolia. Most of them entered the inventory through purchasing, yet in-situ materials extracted from excavations are also quite a lot.
The study deals with cataloging the Cimmerian / Scythian arrowheads that entered the inventory of Van, Kars and Erzurum museums by 2017.
Similar to other topics related to nomads, archaeological reports are not considered as important as the Chinese chronicles. They are even ignored in some cases. However, if the Kagan had such an approach, the excavation materials could give direct answers to this question. One of the pieces of data that will help us in this regard was unearthed in the excavation held in 2001 in the Bilge Kaghan cultic site. A crown found in this excavation and named after the owner of the cultic site - the “Bilge Kaghan Treasure” - may offer a clue about the viewpoints of the ancient Turks (and Uighurs) to Buddhism.
This study proposes a different perspective on the approach of the ancient Turks to this religion.
Abstract
Two important concept related to burial customs, evolved in the belief of Turkic tribes in Early Medieval Ages. The first is inhumation that anyone dies in the steppe as anywhere else in the world have to bury somehow. The second is their cultic (memorial) sites; the structures built as an act of remembrance in honor of those who have died.
Archaeological and historical sources confirm that these cultic constructions were built mainly for representatives of the aristocrats. There are two different type of cultic sites in the steppe: The ones built for Kaghans (and their family members) are more complicated than the ones built for the Beghs (Lord, head of the tribe). Those built for the Beghs (and their families) are more common in the Steppe. A statue was placed in the east section of a square area made of slab stones and has a single stone line extending through east. Each stone in this line is called balbal. Different views exist among the researchers regarding the purpose of these stones, although many of them agree that each stone symbolizes the enemy killed by the buried in his lifetime.
Despite this, there are uncertainties regarding the purpose and functions of these line of stone. In this article, our inquiry focus on this confusion about the meaning of the concept and propose the probable function according to historical, archaeological and social data overlooked by researchers.
Key words: Balbal, non-anthropomorphic stele, Turkic Khaganate, cultic site, Eurasian nomads.
Gök Türklerin Balbal terimi üzerine bazı notlar
Öz
Erken Ortaçağ’da, Türklerin gömü adetleri arasında iki farklı gelenek gelişti: İlki, dünyanın herhangi başka bir yerinde olduğu gibi, ölen birisinin kendi kültür ve geleneklerine göre toprak altındaki ebedi istirahatgâhına bırakılmasıdır. Diğeri ise, ölülerin ardından onları anabilmek için geliştirilen kült (ritüel/hatıra) alanları.
Arkeolojik ve tarihi kaynaklar göstermektedir ki, bu kült alanları politik gücü ellerinde tutan Beyler (ve aileleri) için yapılmaktadır. Stepte bu tarzda yapılmış kült alanlarının iki farklı mimarisi vardır: Birinci tipe giren alanlar Kağan ve Kağan soylu kişiler için planlanırken, Boyların başındaki Beyler için planlanmış olanlar daha basit bir mimari içerirler. Blok taşlardan kare/dikdörtgen yapılmış bu kült alanlarının doğu kısmına, bir heykel ve yine doğuya doğru uzanan tek sıra taşlardan oluşan bir hat planlanmaktaydı. Balbal ismi verilen bu taşların ne anlama geldiği yönünde akademisyenler arasında bir görüş birliği var gibidir. Aralarında farklı düşünceler olsa da çoğu, yazılı kaynaklara dayanarak bu taşların ölen düşmanlar olduğu yönünde bir fikir ileri sürerler.
Arkeolojik ve yazılı kaynaklar karşılaştırıldığında, kabaca yontularak ya da tamamen uzun formlu taşlardan seçilen bu stellerin, farklı bir anlam taşıdığı da iddia edilebilir. Makale, bu kaynaklar arasındaki farklılıkları inceleyerek, araştırmacıların pek de dikkate almadığı arkeolojik, tarihi ve sosyolojik kavramları karşılaştırarak balbal kavramı hakkında farklı bir görüş ileri sürmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Balbal, baba, Gök Türk kağanlığı, kült alanı, Avrasya göçerleri.
Some Sassanid emperors had outstanding organizing capacity. Yet Shapur I was the 3rd emperor, aside capturing the Roman emperor Valerianus at Edassa war, took the necessary measurements to increase the fluidity of the economy. Khusru II was also a prominent emperor among the Sassanid Empire, he was considered as the last great King. He waged war with Romans as other Sassanid Kings, was able to lead his army up to shores of Constantinople but failed at the last of a long term war.
The circulation of Drachmae during the time of Khusru II, was so vast; and not only Arabs but other Central Asian countries as Kushans or Hephtalites used directly or indirectly Sassanid coins or casts in order to regulate their economic systems. Therefore, the inventories of major museums, generally have Khusru II's coins.
Bu yazının amacı, Nejat Diyarbekirli'nin farklı yönlerine değinmek olacaktır. Hayatı ile ilgili detaylar, adına çıkarılan hatıra kitabında bulunabilir.
In such a wide variety, there are two different lifestyles: Nomads and Farmers. While Altai and Tengri Mountains host Turkish people based on animal husbandry; plains, available for agriculture there were different people such as Sogdian, Tocharian, Chinese, Indian or Persian ... What intermix these two different lifestyles, is the trade (especially Silk Road).
The region that is the subject of our work is called Zhetysu (Semirechye in Russian [Seven river]), inhabited by the Turkish and Sogdian people at least since early Medieval. Balasagun, believed to be here, is important since it is the capital of a Khanate (Qarakhanids) whom were completely adapted to sedentary life with its administrators, bureaucrats and even some of its people. Nevertheless, there are still debates about the
location of this city.
Article tries to suggest a possible location (mound) of Balasagun, also discuss the other mounds in the region.
Manisa Castle located on the northern slope of the Mount Spil (formerly known as Sipylus) overlooking the Gediz Valley. The castle consists of two main parts: ‘citadel’ on the top of the hill and ‘outer wall’ (i.e. outer castle, bailey) on the hillside and extending in parallel to Manisa city. The oldest name of the city is Magnesia and the exact date of its foundation is unknown. Manisa was an important military base and, later, a center of the bishopric during the Byzantine period until it was captured by Saruhan Bey in the early 14th century. The city was incorporated into the Ottoman Beylik in the early 15th century. The Manisa Castle hosted significant cultures and survived to our time, unfortunately, largely ruined. The castle was extensively researched but still needs further examination. The aim of this study is to determine and document the castle, survey the walls that indicate to different periods, examine the structures inside the castle and their functions.
In this context, the latest situation of the castle, its inner and outer walls have been retained. We can say that the castle has three main stages. The cyclopean masonry, which was made from large stone blocks without mortar, represents the earliest stage. Although sporadically, traces of the cyclopean walls are still visible along the outer Wall.
Byzantine architecture dominates the Manisa Castle. The extant part of the castle was shaped by the repairs and additions performed during the period of John III Doukas Vatatzes. Manisa gained importance after the 12th century in the Byzantine period and became the center of imperial treasury and mint during the reign of Laskarids. Moreover, sources write that John III Doukas Vatatzes built a palace within the citadel. In line with the information, the survey was focused on terraces and structure remains in the outer wall. High and long retaining walls, the terraces they form, and regularly placed corbels on the retaining walls are striking. Balconies and loggias carried by corbels were frequently used in the Byzantine palace architecture. Corbeled retaining walls and terraces of outer castle suggest that the palace in the Manisa Castle might be in the outer castle.
When Saruhan Bey captured the city in 1313, Fetih Mosque and an adjacent fountain were built in the outer wall. The mosque’s location indicates that the initial Turkish settlement was inside the walls, which were repaired during the Turkish period. These repairs were documented in both architectural data and the archived data.