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Who Remains Unbanked in the United States and Why?

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Abstract
This paper conducts a detailed exploration of the factors associated with unbanked status among U.S. households and how these relationships evolved between 2015 and 2019. Biennial FDIC household survey data on bank account ownership and household characteristics, combined with state-level variables, are examined with application of both fixed effects and multilevel modeling. The analysis finds that even as rising incomes drove a decline in the unbanked percentage of the population over this period, income remained the most significant differentiator, with strong associations with race and ethnicity also persisting. Unbanked status became more concentrated among single individuals and disabled individuals and less concentrated among younger households over this period, and less strongly related to unemployment spells. New factors identified by the analysis include lack of digital access and non-citizen immigrant status, both associated with significantly higher likelihood of being unbanked. Identified state-level relationships include an association between financial literacy measures and percent unbanked. Overall, the findings suggest that continuation of recent efforts by policymakers to bridge the digital divide in rural and urban areas and to enhance financial literacy could help expand financial inclusion. Another key takeaway is that unknown structural factors still pose a challenge to explaining who is unbanked, especially regarding gaps by race and ethnicity, underscoring a need to capture more granular data on the unbanked.

Suggested Citation

  • Paul S. Calem & Chris Henderson & Jenna Wang, 2025. "Who Remains Unbanked in the United States and Why?," Working Papers 25-02, Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia.
    • Handle: RePEc:fip:fedpwp:99465
    DOI: 10.21799/frbp.wp.2025.02
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    More about this item

    Keywords

    unbanked; consumer banking; financial inclusion; financial literacy; multilevel modeling;
    All these keywords.

    JEL classification:

    • D14 - Microeconomics - - Household Behavior - - - Household Saving; Personal Finance
    • D31 - Microeconomics - - Distribution - - - Personal Income and Wealth Distribution
    • G21 - Financial Economics - - Financial Institutions and Services - - - Banks; Other Depository Institutions; Micro Finance Institutions; Mortgages
    • G53 - Financial Economics - - Household Finance - - - Financial Literacy
    • C81 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs - - - Methodology for Collecting, Estimating, and Organizing Microeconomic Data; Data Access
    • C83 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs - - - Survey Methods; Sampling Methods

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