Teacher conceptions of assessment influence their implementation of learning-focused assessment i... more Teacher conceptions of assessment influence their implementation of learning-focused assessment initiatives as advocated in many educational policy documents. This mixed-methods study investigated Chinese secondary school teachers’ conceptions of L2 assessment in the context of an exam-oriented educational system which emphasizes English grammar, vocabulary and reading comprehension skills. For the quantitative part of the study, survey data were collected to gauge the conceptions of assessment held by 66 senior secondary EFL teachers from six schools in Eastern China. For the qualitative part, case studies of two teachers from schools with different rankings were conducted. Quantitative results showed that the teacher participants as a group agreed most with the view that assessment is to help learning. However, there was a strong association between two factors, that is, the assessment as accurate for examination and teacher/school control factor, and the assessment as accurate fo...
This study investigates the effects of pre-task planning on English as a second language (ESL) le... more This study investigates the effects of pre-task planning on English as a second language (ESL) learners’ engagement in oral tasks in the face-to-face real-time communication (FTF) and synchronous video-based computer-mediated communication (SvCMC) modes. A total of 36 ESL learners performed two decision-making tasks (with versus without pre-task planning) in dyads in the FTF or the SvCMC mode. Their oral discourse of tasks was analysed via seven indicators in terms of behavioral, cognitive and social engagement. Their emotional engagement was captured via an interview immediately after the task performance. As the results showed, pre-task planning did not significantly affect the learners’ behavioral, cognitive and social engagement in either the FTF or the SvCMC condition. In SvCMC, more negotiations on content were produced when there was no planning time, but such a difference was not observed among the FTF learners. Mixed affective responses were reported on pre-task planning an...
Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education
Research and practice in task-based language teaching (TBLT) as a cognitively oriented second lan... more Research and practice in task-based language teaching (TBLT) as a cognitively oriented second language (L2) pedagogy have grown substantially over the last three decades. A concurrent development in language education that thrives along the sociocultural paradigm, translanguaging, is also gaining great traction due to its potential in helping to form a holistic communicative repertoire among L2 learners. Despite their different theoretical underpinnings and ideological perspectives, TBLT and translanguaging share many common grounds that are worth exploring. This article argues that translanguaging offers a practical tool for improving L2 task-based performance, especially functional adequacy. Adopting translanguaging in TBLT would be beneficial for learners with a common first language background such as Chinese but lower affect as well as limited lexical and morpho-syntactic knowledge. Implications for L2 or foreign language education policies in the Great Bay Area of China and th...
International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 2022
This study explored forty-eight English as a second language learners’ perceptions of and attitud... more This study explored forty-eight English as a second language learners’ perceptions of and attitudes towards pre-task planning in synchronous video-based computer-mediated (SvCMC) and real-time face-to-face (F2F) communication. The participants, randomly divided into SvCMC and F2F groups, performed a planned and unplanned task in SvCMC/F2F conditions. Interviews were conducted immediately after task performance to capture their perceptions of and attitudes towards pre-task planning and the communication modes. The findings revealed that over half of them perceived the usefulness of pre-task planning and favoured F2F to SvCMC. The participants’ opinions for pre-task planning were elaborated regarding the differences between the ±planning conditions concerning multitasking, organization planning, content preparation, real-world relevance, and responsiveness among non-planners. Their attitudes towards SvCMC and F2F were explained by the different natures of the communication modes and p...
The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, 2018
Total Physical Response (TPR, James Asher) is een in de vorige eeuw ontwikkelde taalleermethode g... more Total Physical Response (TPR, James Asher) is een in de vorige eeuw ontwikkelde taalleermethode gebaseerd op hoe wij onze moedertaal leren. Een belangrijk uitgangspunt is dat zien en doen in de hersenen een positieve invloed hebben op onthouden. De didactiek van TPR is vriendelijk en effectief en geeft elk soort taalonderwijs, aan kinderen en volwassenen, een meerwaarde. Op het Lesjubileumcongres op 7 oktober demonstreerde Lesredacteur van het eerste uur Viola ten Have de meerwaarde van TPR. En wat zijn de mogelijkheden bij gevorderden?
Focusing on the relationship between linguistic, cognitive, socioemotional factors in writing Eng... more Focusing on the relationship between linguistic, cognitive, socioemotional factors in writing English for academic purposes (EAP), this study investigated whether topic familiarity as an important cognitive factor of task complexity influences different levels of emotionality and linguistic complexity in EAP writing and whether there are relationships between emotionality and linguistic complexity. To do so, 64 international graduate learners enrolled in EAP writing courses participated in the present study. Each wrote on familiar and unfamiliar topics determined via a questionnaire at the onset of the study. Their writings were then measured for textual emotionality and linguistic complexity using automatic assessment tools. Results showed that EAP writings differed systematically in terms of both emotionality and linguistic complexity due to the influence of topic familiarity. Unfamiliar topics led to writing performance with a significantly higher level of emotional negativity an...
The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, 2018
This entry provides an introduction to theories of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) as a t... more This entry provides an introduction to theories of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) as a tripartite conceptualization of task-based second language performance. It locates these constructs within task-based language teaching (TBLT), gives definitions of each, and outlines measurement options in each case. The entry argues that, though CAF was originally developed for research purposes, the three areas have become increasingly important for pedagogy. Task complexity, task conditions and characteristics, and learner factors can all have an impact on CAF selectively in task performance. Two contrasting theories, Skehan's limited attention capacity hypothesis and Robinson's cognition hypothesis, are discussed as general operating principles to understand how CAF can be influenced by task factors. Pedagogical suggestions are linked to the three performance areas, and consider the impact of different task characteristics, of planning (pre-task and online), and of repetition. It is also proposed that the post-task stage can have particular importance for the development of complexity and accuracy.
Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 2021
Prior research demonstrates that primary and secondary school teachers often find teaching young ... more Prior research demonstrates that primary and secondary school teachers often find teaching young learners to write in a second language a slow and effortful process. Moreover, students in this age range lack the motivation to write. Therefore, it is important to explore the EFL writing pedagogy suitable for young learners. The present study investigated how story continuation (with or without reading input) under different topic familiarity conditions serves as a viable pedagogical means for secondary school students. Ninety-one Chinese students in four intact classes of comparable proficiency levels were assigned four writing task conditions in a 2 ⨉ 2 factorial design. Group 1 (Fam) was provided with the beginning of a familiar story in L1 Chinese and was required to complete the story in L2 English. Group 2 (UnFam) had the same task as Group 1, with an unfamiliar story. Group 3 (Fam+Input) was initially provided with the complete familiar story in Chinese (the same story as Group...
This study adoptsNelson’s (2014)methodological framework to investigate core and peripheral lexic... more This study adoptsNelson’s (2014)methodological framework to investigate core and peripheral lexical bundles (i.e. recurrent multi-word sequences) in conversation, using data from the British, Canadian, Singapore, and Hong Kong components of theInternational Corpus of English(ICE). The overlap and non-overlap comparisons reveal (dis)similarities in the use of bundles across the four World Englishes (WEs). Our findings suggest that in terms of discourse building blocks, the more advanced a variety is according toSchneider’s (2007)Dynamic Model of New Englishes, the more lexical bundles it shares with the common core in conversation. Canadian English (CanE) shares the most common ground with British English (BrE). As a nascent variety, Hong Kong English (HKE) differs most from BrE, while Singapore English falls between CanE and HKE. Though the results do not correlate with Schneider’s Dynamic Model at the level of recurring chunks, they allow us to test predictions of WEs models. Quant...
This study investigates the relative effects of enhanced and unenhanced recasts on young learners... more This study investigates the relative effects of enhanced and unenhanced recasts on young learners’ question development in L2 English, examining whether enhanced recasts can contribute to disambiguation. Forty-six Secondary One students in Hong Kong were evenly divided into an enhanced recast group and an unenhanced recast group. Each participant participated in a pretest, followed by three treatment sessions in three consecutive weeks. Participants in the enhanced recast group received enhanced recasts with prosodic (tonal stress) and extra-linguistic (gestures and facial expressions) cues from the teacher, whereas those in the unenhanced recast group received normal recasts when they made mistakes when asking questions. After that, an immediate post-test and a two-week delayed post-test were carried out to examine participants’ progress in L2 question formation. The results of the immediate post-test showed that both types of recasts contributed to L2 advancement, but the effects ...
This mixed-methods study explores English and Japanese learning motivations in a group of Japanes... more This mixed-methods study explores English and Japanese learning motivations in a group of Japanese summer course participants at a university in Hong Kong. Sixty-one Cantonese-speaking students completed two questionnaire surveys on co-existing motivations for learning L2 English and L3 Japanese. Depending on the questionnaire results, eight participants were selected to take part in the two subsequent interviews. The findings revealed that the participants perceived L2 English learning as a school subject and a practical tool for academics and career. It was instrumentality, rather than integrativeness, that motivated the students to learn English. Contrary results were found for L3 Japanese language learning, as the learners had more cultural interest, positive learning experience, self-confidence, and positive attitudes. This study, therefore, argues that L2 and L3 motivations merit distinct status. There appears to exist a dual-motivation system amongst these multilingual learne...
Teacher conceptions of assessment influence their implementation of learning-focused assessment i... more Teacher conceptions of assessment influence their implementation of learning-focused assessment initiatives as advocated in many educational policy documents. This mixed-methods study investigated Chinese secondary school teachers’ conceptions of L2 assessment in the context of an exam-oriented educational system which emphasizes English grammar, vocabulary and reading comprehension skills. For the quantitative part of the study, survey data were collected to gauge the conceptions of assessment held by 66 senior secondary EFL teachers from six schools in Eastern China. For the qualitative part, case studies of two teachers from schools with different rankings were conducted. Quantitative results showed that the teacher participants as a group agreed most with the view that assessment is to help learning. However, there was a strong association between two factors, that is, the assessment as accurate for examination and teacher/school control factor, and the assessment as accurate fo...
This study investigates the effects of pre-task planning on English as a second language (ESL) le... more This study investigates the effects of pre-task planning on English as a second language (ESL) learners’ engagement in oral tasks in the face-to-face real-time communication (FTF) and synchronous video-based computer-mediated communication (SvCMC) modes. A total of 36 ESL learners performed two decision-making tasks (with versus without pre-task planning) in dyads in the FTF or the SvCMC mode. Their oral discourse of tasks was analysed via seven indicators in terms of behavioral, cognitive and social engagement. Their emotional engagement was captured via an interview immediately after the task performance. As the results showed, pre-task planning did not significantly affect the learners’ behavioral, cognitive and social engagement in either the FTF or the SvCMC condition. In SvCMC, more negotiations on content were produced when there was no planning time, but such a difference was not observed among the FTF learners. Mixed affective responses were reported on pre-task planning an...
Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education
Research and practice in task-based language teaching (TBLT) as a cognitively oriented second lan... more Research and practice in task-based language teaching (TBLT) as a cognitively oriented second language (L2) pedagogy have grown substantially over the last three decades. A concurrent development in language education that thrives along the sociocultural paradigm, translanguaging, is also gaining great traction due to its potential in helping to form a holistic communicative repertoire among L2 learners. Despite their different theoretical underpinnings and ideological perspectives, TBLT and translanguaging share many common grounds that are worth exploring. This article argues that translanguaging offers a practical tool for improving L2 task-based performance, especially functional adequacy. Adopting translanguaging in TBLT would be beneficial for learners with a common first language background such as Chinese but lower affect as well as limited lexical and morpho-syntactic knowledge. Implications for L2 or foreign language education policies in the Great Bay Area of China and th...
International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 2022
This study explored forty-eight English as a second language learners’ perceptions of and attitud... more This study explored forty-eight English as a second language learners’ perceptions of and attitudes towards pre-task planning in synchronous video-based computer-mediated (SvCMC) and real-time face-to-face (F2F) communication. The participants, randomly divided into SvCMC and F2F groups, performed a planned and unplanned task in SvCMC/F2F conditions. Interviews were conducted immediately after task performance to capture their perceptions of and attitudes towards pre-task planning and the communication modes. The findings revealed that over half of them perceived the usefulness of pre-task planning and favoured F2F to SvCMC. The participants’ opinions for pre-task planning were elaborated regarding the differences between the ±planning conditions concerning multitasking, organization planning, content preparation, real-world relevance, and responsiveness among non-planners. Their attitudes towards SvCMC and F2F were explained by the different natures of the communication modes and p...
The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, 2018
Total Physical Response (TPR, James Asher) is een in de vorige eeuw ontwikkelde taalleermethode g... more Total Physical Response (TPR, James Asher) is een in de vorige eeuw ontwikkelde taalleermethode gebaseerd op hoe wij onze moedertaal leren. Een belangrijk uitgangspunt is dat zien en doen in de hersenen een positieve invloed hebben op onthouden. De didactiek van TPR is vriendelijk en effectief en geeft elk soort taalonderwijs, aan kinderen en volwassenen, een meerwaarde. Op het Lesjubileumcongres op 7 oktober demonstreerde Lesredacteur van het eerste uur Viola ten Have de meerwaarde van TPR. En wat zijn de mogelijkheden bij gevorderden?
Focusing on the relationship between linguistic, cognitive, socioemotional factors in writing Eng... more Focusing on the relationship between linguistic, cognitive, socioemotional factors in writing English for academic purposes (EAP), this study investigated whether topic familiarity as an important cognitive factor of task complexity influences different levels of emotionality and linguistic complexity in EAP writing and whether there are relationships between emotionality and linguistic complexity. To do so, 64 international graduate learners enrolled in EAP writing courses participated in the present study. Each wrote on familiar and unfamiliar topics determined via a questionnaire at the onset of the study. Their writings were then measured for textual emotionality and linguistic complexity using automatic assessment tools. Results showed that EAP writings differed systematically in terms of both emotionality and linguistic complexity due to the influence of topic familiarity. Unfamiliar topics led to writing performance with a significantly higher level of emotional negativity an...
The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, 2018
This entry provides an introduction to theories of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) as a t... more This entry provides an introduction to theories of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) as a tripartite conceptualization of task-based second language performance. It locates these constructs within task-based language teaching (TBLT), gives definitions of each, and outlines measurement options in each case. The entry argues that, though CAF was originally developed for research purposes, the three areas have become increasingly important for pedagogy. Task complexity, task conditions and characteristics, and learner factors can all have an impact on CAF selectively in task performance. Two contrasting theories, Skehan's limited attention capacity hypothesis and Robinson's cognition hypothesis, are discussed as general operating principles to understand how CAF can be influenced by task factors. Pedagogical suggestions are linked to the three performance areas, and consider the impact of different task characteristics, of planning (pre-task and online), and of repetition. It is also proposed that the post-task stage can have particular importance for the development of complexity and accuracy.
Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 2021
Prior research demonstrates that primary and secondary school teachers often find teaching young ... more Prior research demonstrates that primary and secondary school teachers often find teaching young learners to write in a second language a slow and effortful process. Moreover, students in this age range lack the motivation to write. Therefore, it is important to explore the EFL writing pedagogy suitable for young learners. The present study investigated how story continuation (with or without reading input) under different topic familiarity conditions serves as a viable pedagogical means for secondary school students. Ninety-one Chinese students in four intact classes of comparable proficiency levels were assigned four writing task conditions in a 2 ⨉ 2 factorial design. Group 1 (Fam) was provided with the beginning of a familiar story in L1 Chinese and was required to complete the story in L2 English. Group 2 (UnFam) had the same task as Group 1, with an unfamiliar story. Group 3 (Fam+Input) was initially provided with the complete familiar story in Chinese (the same story as Group...
This study adoptsNelson’s (2014)methodological framework to investigate core and peripheral lexic... more This study adoptsNelson’s (2014)methodological framework to investigate core and peripheral lexical bundles (i.e. recurrent multi-word sequences) in conversation, using data from the British, Canadian, Singapore, and Hong Kong components of theInternational Corpus of English(ICE). The overlap and non-overlap comparisons reveal (dis)similarities in the use of bundles across the four World Englishes (WEs). Our findings suggest that in terms of discourse building blocks, the more advanced a variety is according toSchneider’s (2007)Dynamic Model of New Englishes, the more lexical bundles it shares with the common core in conversation. Canadian English (CanE) shares the most common ground with British English (BrE). As a nascent variety, Hong Kong English (HKE) differs most from BrE, while Singapore English falls between CanE and HKE. Though the results do not correlate with Schneider’s Dynamic Model at the level of recurring chunks, they allow us to test predictions of WEs models. Quant...
This study investigates the relative effects of enhanced and unenhanced recasts on young learners... more This study investigates the relative effects of enhanced and unenhanced recasts on young learners’ question development in L2 English, examining whether enhanced recasts can contribute to disambiguation. Forty-six Secondary One students in Hong Kong were evenly divided into an enhanced recast group and an unenhanced recast group. Each participant participated in a pretest, followed by three treatment sessions in three consecutive weeks. Participants in the enhanced recast group received enhanced recasts with prosodic (tonal stress) and extra-linguistic (gestures and facial expressions) cues from the teacher, whereas those in the unenhanced recast group received normal recasts when they made mistakes when asking questions. After that, an immediate post-test and a two-week delayed post-test were carried out to examine participants’ progress in L2 question formation. The results of the immediate post-test showed that both types of recasts contributed to L2 advancement, but the effects ...
This mixed-methods study explores English and Japanese learning motivations in a group of Japanes... more This mixed-methods study explores English and Japanese learning motivations in a group of Japanese summer course participants at a university in Hong Kong. Sixty-one Cantonese-speaking students completed two questionnaire surveys on co-existing motivations for learning L2 English and L3 Japanese. Depending on the questionnaire results, eight participants were selected to take part in the two subsequent interviews. The findings revealed that the participants perceived L2 English learning as a school subject and a practical tool for academics and career. It was instrumentality, rather than integrativeness, that motivated the students to learn English. Contrary results were found for L3 Japanese language learning, as the learners had more cultural interest, positive learning experience, self-confidence, and positive attitudes. This study, therefore, argues that L2 and L3 motivations merit distinct status. There appears to exist a dual-motivation system amongst these multilingual learne...
The role of the learner in TBLT: Theory and Research
This chapter addresses some key terms and distinctions that are essential background to chapters ... more This chapter addresses some key terms and distinctions that are essential background to chapters that follow. The term task is defined in the context of task-based language teaching (TBLT), and the role of the learner within this paradigm is problematized. Following this, a distinction is made between affective and conative variables, and these variables positioned within the larger discourse of individual differences research in TBLT. Finally, a distinction is made between two complementary approaches to research (nomothetic & idiographic) as a basis for integrating the different perspectives, claims and suggestions for ongoing work discussed in the different chapters. Following this essential background, the respective parts of the books are introduced and a preview of the chapters contained in each is provided.
The Role of the Learner in Task-Based Language Teaching
In this concluding chapter, we draw on salient themes in the book to propose new directions for f... more In this concluding chapter, we draw on salient themes in the book to propose new directions for future TBLT research. First, the authors encourage investigations into the dynamic nature of affect, which is an emerging area in learner psychology but an under-researched one in TBLT. We argue that this area is necessary if researchers are to understand how the role of the learner in task-based learning evolves over time. Second, we recommend future researchers triangulate objectives measures (discourse, non-verbal behavior, psychophysiological) and subjective measures of affect (self-report data) to understand the affective dimension of TBLT more comprehensively. The use of multiple measurement methods is needed as each provides complementary information on the learner experience. Finally, the authors underscore the need for future TBLT research to remain grounded in providing practical, evidence-based advice for designing and implementing tasks in the language classroom to facilitate positive learner experiences.
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