History

Using the biography of Ebubekir Ratib Efendi, this article aims to scrutinize the typical 18th century “Ottoman” in the service of the Sublime Porte. The military defeats taken in the Balkans and Black Sea had a great impact in the formation of a new Ottoman bureaucrat in the late 18th century. The new “Ottoman” was indeed a product of changing needs and structure of the Ottoman state. Increasing need for experienced diplomats is one of the basic reasons brought the evolution of an ideal “Ottoman”, from military-administrator “pasha” to scribal “efendi”. The bureaucratic career of Ebubekir Ratib Efendi exemplifies the said evolution and the very domination of the Sublime Porte over the other Ottoman state institutions. Ratib Efendi, who was educated in Amedi Office, which became a busier place with the increasing prominence of diplomacy in international relations. Therefore it was no surprise that he was chosen represent the Ottoman Empire as an envoy in the court of the Habsburgs. His observations in Vienna, which were described in detail in his treatise and travelogue, opened new horizons for the Ottoman bureaucracy of the New Order. The accuracy of Ratib Efendi’s descriptions of the European state and army organizations in his treatise prove that new type of “Ottoman” was emerging as well as his talents as a statesman. Ebubekir Ratib Efendi, who had a solid background on the political theories of Islam, well understood the contemporary European concepts. Ratib Efendi was instrumental not only in designing the theoretical background of the New Order policies but also the application of this theory. His impact on the codification of the regulation for viziers, his role in the foundation of the Grain Administration (Zahire Nezareti) and his service as a reisülküttab clearly underline his practical contributions to the reorganization of the Ottoman Empire. However, Ratib Efendi, who was living in an age when factional rivalries and conflicts between political households, could not save himself from being the target of factional frictions and intrigues, which were also typical of his age.

Öz Bu çalışma 18. yüzyıl Bâb-ı Âlisinde sivrilen tipik " Osmanlı " yı devrin önde gelen kâtiplerinden Ebubekir Ratib Efendi'nin hayat hikayesi çerçevesinde değer-lendirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Osmanlı Devleti'nin değişen yapısının ve ihtiyaçlarının bir ürünü olan Osmanlı tipinin 18. yüzyıldaki karakterine kavuşmasında Osmanlı ordusunun bilhassa ülkenin batı sınırlarında aldığı yenilgiler büyük bir etkiye sa-hiptir. Artan oranda deneyimli diplomatlara duyulan ihtiyaç, ideal Osmanlı tipinin " paşa " dan " efendi " ye doğru evriminin ardında yatan en temel sebeplerden birisidir. 18. yüzyıl ortasında doğan Ebubekir Ratib Efendi'nin bürokratik kariyeri bu bağlamda Kalemiye'nin devleti oluşturan dört tarik içerisinde öne çıkışını ve özel olarak ideal " Osmanlı " tipinde gözlemlenen değişimi örneklemektedir. Uluslararası ilişkilerde dip-lomasinin, en az savaş kadar önem kazanmasına mukabil Bab-ı Âli'de iş yükü artan ve önem kazanan Amedi Kalemi'nde yetişen Ratib Efendi, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nu, Habsburg İmparatorluğu nezdinde temsil etmiştir. Bu dönemde kaleme aldığı layiha ve sefaretname, Avrupa'nın önde gelen başkentlerinden birisi olan Viyana'da yaptığı gözlemler aracılığıyla Nizam-ı Cedid bürokrasisinin önünde yeni ufuklar açmıştır. Genel olarak devrin Avrupasındaki devlet ve ordu organizasyonlarını tasvir ve teşhis eden layihasındaki tahlillerin geçerliliği, doğrudan Ratib Efendi özelinde tartışılan yeni Osmanlı tipinin yetişme tarzıyla alakalıdır. Bab-ı Âli'de tanıştığı İslam siyaset teorisi üzerinden devrin Avrupai kavramlarını anlamlandıran Ebubekir Ratib Efen-di, Nizam-ı Cedid siyasetinin planlanmasında başrollerden birisini üstlenmiştir. III. Selim devrindeki Osmanlı ideal tipinin bir örneği olan Ratib Efendi, Nizam-ı Cedid siyasetinin teorik arka planının oluşturulmasının yanı sıra söz konusu teorinin uygu-lanmasında da etkilidir. III. Selim'in Vüzera Kanunnamesi'nin kaleme alınmasındaki etkisi, Zahire Nazırlığı'nın kurulmasındaki rolü ve Reisülküttap olarak verdiği hizmet

The eighteenth century witnessed the transformation of the artillery from a professional guild into a major branch of the army that dominated the battlefield. The attempts to create more mobile and effective cannon in Europe was closely fol- lowed by the Ottomans. The lessons taken from the defeats at the hands of the Rus- sian army obliged the Ottomans to re-organize the artillery corps that would be able to compete with the enemies. Undoubtedly, Baron de Tott played a pivotal role in the birth of this new corps called Rapid-fire Artillery. The new corps, however, required a new type of canons and a foundry, as well. This article is an attempt to study the creation of Rapid-fire Artillery Corps and manufacturing cannons in line with the contemporary European casting process in the Ottoman Empire. The corps was es- tablished first in the capital but in 1783, as a precaution for a probable war against Russia, Halil Hamid Pasha, the grand vizier, established rapid-fire artillery troops in the centers of the border provinces. Beside their deployments, this work also addresses the complex and sometimes confusing story of the Ottoman military bureaucracy and its financial instruments used in funding the Rapid-fire Artillery Corps.