Rashin hankula
Biopiracy (wanda akafi sani da mulkin mallaka na kimiyya) shine bada izini na ilimi da albarkatun kwayar halitta na noma da al'ummomin asali ta mutane ko cibiyoyin dake neman iko na musamman ta hanyar takardun shaida ko dukiyar ilimi. [1] Duk da yake bioprospecting shine aikin bincika albarkatun halitta don sinadarai da ba a gano su batare da magunguna ko kayan rigakafin ƙwayoyin cuta, nasarar kasuwanci daga bioprospectation yana haifar da ƙoƙarin kamfanin na kare haƙƙin mallaka na ilimi akan tsire-tsire na asali, tsaba, albarkatun kwayoyin halitta, da Magunguna na gargajiya.[2]
Bugu da ƙari, idan an ɗauki albarkatun halittu da ilimin gargajiya daga 'yan asalin ƙasar ko ƙungiyoyi masu warewa, Kasuwanci albarkatun su na halitta na iya cutar da al'ummomi. Duk da fa'idodin magani da sababbin fa'idodi na binciken halittu da bincike na kwayoyin halitta, kwace ƙasar asali don albarkatun kwayoyin halitta batare da biyan diyya mai kyau bazai haifar da amfani. Biopiracy na iya cutar da 'yan asalin ƙasar ta hanyoyi da yawa. Batare da biyan diyya ko lada don ilimin gargajiya na albarkatun kasa ba, karuwar kwatsam a cikin darajar kasuwanci na jinsunan dake samar da fili mai aiki na iya sa yanzu baza'a iya biyan shi ba ga 'yan asalin ƙasar. A wasu lokuta, takardar shaidar da kamfanin yamma ya gabatar na iya hana amfani ko siyar da albarkatun ta kowane mutum ko ma'aikata, gami da ƙungiyar 'yan asalin. Tare da kusan kashi ɗaya bisa uku na duk ƙananan kwayoyin da Hukumar Abinci da Magunguna ta Amurka (FDA) ta amince dasu tsakanin 1981 da 2014 kasancewa ko dai samfuran halitta ko mahadi da aka samo daga samfuran halitta, binciken halittu ko fashi yana ƙaruwa sosai, musamman a Masana'antar magunguna.[3] Bugu da ƙari, Ƙungiyar Ilimi, Kimiyya da Al'adu ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya (UNESCO) ta ambaci, a cikin mahallin al'adun al'adu marasa ma'ana (ICH), cewa al'adun magani da ilimin al'ummomin Kallawaya a Peru sun shafi rashin kariya ta doka daga kamfanonin magunguna. A halin yanzu ana cigaba da ayyukan bincike da yawa a kan wannan batun, kamar binciken da aka gudanar ta amfani da hanyoyin dijital akan biopiracy na magungunan gargajiya, [4] wanda ke nuna mahallin matsalar ta yanzu ta hanyar haɓaka bayanin da nazarin bayanan, da kuma nunawa da taswirar kungiyoyi daban-daban da 'yan wasan kwaikwayo a cikin hanyoyin sadarwar jama'a.[5]
Tare da cigaban dabarun cirewa kayan kwayar halitta a cikin ilmin sunadarai da ilmin halitta, masana kimiyya yanzu suna iya gano takamaiman kwayar halitta, wanda ke jagorantar enzymes dake iya canza kwayar halitta zuwa wani.[6] Wannan cigaban kimiyya yakawo tambaya game dako kwayar dake dauke da kwayar halitta da aka gyara ta hanyar jerin gwaje-gwaje da gwaje-gaje ya kamata a amince da ita ga ƙasar asali.
Tarihi
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Sakamakon mulkin mallaka
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Biopiracy yana da alaƙa da tarihi tare da mulkin mallaka, inda za'ayi amfani da ƙasashe masu tasowa da 'yan asalin ƙasar batare da izini ba. Tun zuwan mazauna Turai don neman zinariya, azurfa, da kayan yaji masu ban sha'awa, wadatar ilimi game da dukiyar tsire-tsire tana da daraja sosai.[2] Bayan tafiyar Marco Polo ta Kudu maso Yammacin Indiya da China, Christopher Columbus ya fadada kan "Hanyar Ruwa" tare da taimakon Kotun Mutanen Espanya. Wadannan masu bincike, daga cikin daruruwan da suka fi sani, suna da tarihin fashi ta hanyar ƙauyuka na asali da kuma hana ƙasashe albarkatun ƙasa. Kamfanonin abinci da magunguna na Yamma sun amfana sosai daga waɗannan ƙoƙarin. An dauki kayayyaki masu mahimmanci kamar sukari, albasa, quinine, da kofi daga ƙasashe masu mulkin mallaka waɗanda suka haifar da lalacewar muhalli a cikin ƙasashe masu tasowa.[7]
Babban Yarjejeniyar kan Haraji da Ciniki (GATT) na 1947 ƙoƙari ne na ƙarfafa cinikayya ta duniya ta hanyar rage ko kawar da shingen kasuwanci kamar haraji ko ƙididdiga.[8] An tattauna da haƙƙin mallaka na kasuwanci (TRIPS) a ƙarshen GATT. Hakazalika, Columbus ya kafa misali a cikin 1492 ta hanyar lakabi na ƙasa da sarakuna da sarauniya na Turai suka basu, wanda yayi aiki a matsayin wani nau'i na patent ga masu mulkin mallaka. Yarjejeniyar Ƙungiyar Ciniki ta Duniya (WTO) ta TRIPS tana ƙoƙari ta nuna muhimmancin kiyaye daidaituwa tsakanin kasuwanci da dukiyar ilimi. Wannan yarjejeniya, tun daga shekara ta 1994, tana buƙatar ƙasashen membobin WTO su haɓaka tsarin doka don kare albarkatun shuke-shuke da dabbobi a cikin aikin gona, magunguna, sunadarai, masana'antu, ko wasu abubuwan sayarwa.[1] Kasashe dayawa sun soki wannan yarjejeniyar, suna da'awar cewa batada amfani wajen kare albarkatun su.
Tushen Yurocentric na da'awar dukiya da satar kayayyaki an ƙarfafa su ta hanyar dokokin mallakar ilimi na zamani da GATT da WTO suka kafa wanda ke bada gudummawa ga ra'ayoyin mulkin mallaka don "ganowa da cin nasara" da kuma "samarwa, zama, da mallaka". fafutukar muhalli da mai bada shawara kan ikon cin abinci Vandana ya kira Shiva da'awar haƙƙin haƙƙin haƙƙoƙin kayan kwayar halitta da albarkatun halittu "zawar ta biyu ta Columbus" saboda karfafa ƙarfin ikon mulkin mallaka. Misali, dukiyar ilimi don samfuran Indiya kamar tamarind, turmeric, da shayi na Darjeeling an karbe su kuma kamfanoni masu zaman kansu ne a cikin ƙasashen mulkin mallaka na tarihi. Fiye da haka, a cikin 2010 Jami'ar Michigan ta yi ƙoƙari ta bada izini ga curcumin, sinadarin turmeric mai aiki, don ƙirƙirar magunguna da akayi amfani dasu don warkar da rauni batare da bada kyauta ga al'ummomin Indiya kai tsaye ba, inda akayi amfani le turmeric a al'ada don magance raunuka, kamuwa da cuta da matsalolin fata na ƙarni. [1]
"Gene Rush" a Sri Lanka
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]"Gene Rush" shine sabon zamanin biotechnology wanda ke bawa masana kimiyya damar cire takamaiman kwayoyin halitta daga halittu masu rai a matsayin albarkatun kasa. Tare da gabatar da binciken deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), an yi wa Sri Lanka alama da haɗari mai zuwa a matsayin manufa ta biopiracy. An hango shi a cikin manyan wurare masu yawa na halittu 34, Sri Lanka tayi iƙirarin mafi girman halittu a kowane yanki na ƙasa tsakanin ƙasashen Asiya.[2] A halin yanzu, Sri Lanka tana da nau'ikan magunguna 1,500 da aka gano, kuma jan hankalinta ga biopiracy ya sanya kariya da kiyayewa a babban fifiko a kasar. Ƙoƙarin da aka yi kwanan nan ne ta Ƙungiyar Cigaban Masana'antu ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya (UNIDO) tare da haɗin gwiwar Majalisar Spice da Gwamnatin Sri Lanka don haɓaka ƙwarewar samarwa da gasa na sarkar ƙimar cinnamon a cikin ƙasar.[9]
Kalmomin
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]"Biopiracy" an kirkireshi ne a farkon shekarun 1990 ta hanyar Pat Mooney, wanda ya kafa kungiyar ETC wanda ke aiki don kare mutanen da suka fi rauni a duniya daga tasirin zamantakewa da muhalli na sabbin fasahohin zamani. Ya bayyana shi a matsayin lokacin da masu bincike ko kungiyoyin bincike suka dauki albarkatun halittu batare da izinin hukuma ba, galibi daga ƙasashe marasa wadata ko mutanen da aka ware.[7] Biopiracy ya haɗa da sata ko kuskuren albarkatun kwayar halitta da ilimin gargajiya ta hanyar tsarin mallakar ilimi da tarin albarkatun kwayoyin halitta marasa izini don dalilai na kasuwanci.[7] Mooney, tare da sauran masu sukar tsarin patent, sunyi imanin cewa tsarin mallakar ilimi na yanzu yana haifar da rashin daidaito a cikin tsarin ta hanyar bada damar masu arziki da masu iko su mallaki mafi mahimman abubuwan gini na rayuwa.
Dukiyar Ilimi da dokar kasa da kasa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Hakkin mallakar ilimi (IP) sun haɗa da takardun shaida, haƙƙin mallaka, haƙƙin ƙirar masana'antu, alamun kasuwanci, haƙƙin iri-iri na shuke-shuke, Tufafin kasuwanci, alamun ƙasa, kuma wani lokacin Asirin kasuwanci.
An kirkiro haƙƙin mallaka na ilimi (IPR) don ingantawa da kuma bada lada ga ilimin kimiyya da kerawa. Koyaya, suna da ma'ana ga amfanin kamfanoni na kasa da kasa.
Ƙuntatawa don tallafawa kamfanoni
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Yarjejeniyar mallakar ilimi ta farko an tsara tane a ƙarshen karni na 19 ta ikon Turai, kuma anyi watsi da manyan bangarorin tasirin mallakar ilimi ga mutanen daba na Turai ba, al'adu, da al'adu.
A ƙarshen karni na 20, an kara ƙarin rashin daidaito a cikin tsarin mallakar ilimi, wanda ke wakiltar canji daga haƙƙin kowa zuwa haƙƙin sirri na ilimi. Gabatarwar Yarjejeniyar TRIPS ta amince da waɗannan haƙƙoƙin a matsayin haƙƙoƙi masu zaman kansu. Ta hanyar mallaka masu ilimi, TRIPS yana ƙarfafa mallakar kamfanoni.
Ƙuntatawa ta biyu ta fito ne daga gaskiyar cewa haƙƙin IP ana gane sune kawai lokacin da suke samar da riba, maimakon lokacin da suka cika bukatun zamantakewa. Yarjejeniyar TRIPS ta bayyana cewa dole ne sabon abu ya sami damar samun riba ta masana'antu don a gane shi a matsayin IPR, [10] wanda ke hana amincewa da amfanin zamantakewa.
Tsarin shari'a game da kwayar halitta dangane da albarkatun kwayar halitta da ilimin gargajiya
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A layi daya, al'ummomin duniya suna aiki a kan hanyoyi daban-daban na shari'a don sake daidaita tsarin mallakar ilimi don tallafawa 'Yan asalin ƙasar da al'ummomi na gida, a cikin ƙoƙari na magance damuwa dake da alaƙa da biopiracy.
Abubuwa na farko da suka shafi albarkatun kwayar halitta da ilimin gargajiya an haɗa su a cikin Yarjejeniyar 1992 kan Bambancin Halitta (CBD). A cikin 2014, Yarjejeniyar Nagoya ga CBD ta kirkiro hanyoyin da za'a iya amfani dasu don tabbatar da samun dama da raba albarkatun kwayar halitta (GR).
Tun daga shekara ta 2001, Ƙungiyar Kula da Ilimin Ilimin Duniya ta kirkiro Kwamitin Gwamnati kan Ilimin Ilimi da Al'adun Jini, Ilimin Al'ada da Folklore (IGC) wanda yayin da yake aiki a wurare da yawa don rufe gibin da ke cikin dokar kasa da kasa dangane da GR, ilimin gargajiya (TK), da kuma al'adun gargajiya. Sakamakon farko daga wak na IGC shine Taron diflomasiyya da aka shirya a watan Mayu na shekara ta 2024 don amincewa da yarjejeniya don bayyana takardar shaidar dangane da GR da TK mai alaƙa.
Misalan
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]| Abin da ya faru | Wurin da ya samo asali | Kasar da ke cikin fashi |
|---|---|---|
| Mai zaki mai zaki (Momordica charantia) | Afirka | Amurka |
| Turmeric (Curcuma longa) | Yankin Indiya da kudu maso gabashin Asiya | Amurka |
| Kothala Himbutu (Salacia reticulata) | Sri Lanka, Tsibirin Andaman | Japan, Amurka, sauran ƙasashen Turai |
| Itacen mai na Pongame (Pongamia glabra) | Asiya, Ostiraliya, da tsibirin Pacific | Japan |
| Masbadda (Gymnema sylvestre) | Asiya, Afirka, da Ostiraliya | Japan |
| Cutar Sida ta zuciya (Sida cordifolia) | Indiya | Japan |
| Yellow Vine (Coscinium fenestratum) | Indiya, Sri Lanka | Masu samar da magunguna na Japan, Turai, da Amurka |
| Neem (Azadirachta indica) | Indiya, Nepal | EPO ga Ma'aikatar Aikin Gona ta Amurka da kamfanin Amurka W.R. |
| Bean na yau da kullun (Phaseolus vulgaris) | Kudancin da Amurka ta Tsakiya | Amurka |
| Itacen roba (Hevea brasiliensis) | Brazil | Ingila |
| Shuka na Hoodia (Hoodia gordonii) | Kudancin Afirka | CSIR ta ba da takardar shaidar ga Phytopharm da Pfizer |
| Kakadu Plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana) | Mutanen asalin Australiya | Amurka |
| Aloe vera | Yankin Larabawa | Amurka |
Itacen Neem
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
A cikin yankunan da basu da ruwa na Indiya, itacen neem, ko Azadirachta indica, itace mai saurin girma har zuwa mita 20 a tsawo. Daga tushensa zuwa ganye, itacen yana dauke da sinadarai masu karfi da yawa, gami da Azadirachtin wanda za'a iya samu a cikin tsaba. Itacen neem yana da aikace-aikace a cikin magani, kayan wanka, hana haihuwa, katako, man fetur, da aikin gona.[12] A tarihi, samun dama ga kayayyakin bishiyar neem daban-daban kyauta ne ko kuma mai arha. Akwai kimanin itatuwan neem miliyan 14 a Indiya, kuma tsoffin dabarun ƙauyuka na ƙarni na hakar man iri da emulsions na maganin ƙwayoyin cuta ba sa buƙatar kayan aiki masu tsada. Mazauna ƙauyen sun dogara da adadi mai yawa na magunguna daban-daban waɗanda za'a iya samun su ta hanyar kayan neem waɗanda aka saba samu.[12] Lokacin da mai shigo da katako na Amurka Robert Larson ya lura da amfanin itacen a cikin 1971, ya gudanar da bincike a cikin shekaru goma masu zuwa akan kaddarorin maganin ƙwayoyin cuta a cikin ƙwayar cutar da ake kira Margosan-O. Bayan samun izinin samfurin daga Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka (EPA) a 1985, ya sayar da takardar shaidar samfurin ga W.R. Grace. Duk da yake kamfanin yabada izinin cire kwayar itacen neem don yaduwar su, Neemex a cikin 1994, manoma na karkara a Indiya sun yi amfani da kwayar cutar neem sama da shekaru 2,000 a cikin masu hana kwari.[7]
Ƙalubalen da aka yi wa patent
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Gidauniyar Bincike ta Indiya don Kimiyya, Fasaha, da Muhalli (RFSTE) ta kalubalanci takardar shaidar Amurka tare da da'awar cewa an san halaye na itacen neem da amfani dasu a Indiya sama da shekaru 2,000. Ofishin Bincike na Majalisa (CRS) yabada rahoto ga Majalisa ta Amurka don tabbatar da takardar shaidar da ke da'awar cewa nau'in roba ko tsarin kira na mahaɗin dake faruwa na halitta ya kamata yazama mai ba da izini. [ana buƙatar hujja][ana buƙatar ƙa'ida] A ƙarshe EPO ta soke takardar shaidar a cikin shekara ta 2000. [7] Itacen neem na ƙauyen yazama alama ce ta ilimin 'yan asalin Indiya da juriya ga kamfanoni na ƙasashen duniya, kuma masu zanga-zangar adawa da dokar haƙƙin mallaka ta duniya sun ɗauki rassan ko rassan neem.[12]
Hoodia
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Anyi amfani da shuka ta Hoodia na hamadar Kalahari na dubban shekaru ta hanyar Mutanen San a kudancin Afirka don taimakawa wajen tsira ta hanyar yunwa da ƙishirwa yayin doguwar tafiyarsu a cikin hamada.[13] A cikin 2016, Majalisar Afirka ta Kudu don Binciken Kimiyya da Masana'antu (CSIR) ta sami takardar shaidar gwamnati don sabon magani (P57) wanda aka samo daga kayan dake da kyau don halayensa masu hana abinci.[14] Masana kimiyya na CSIR sun ware kwayar P57 a cikin 1996 bayan shekaru dayawa na bincike kan tsire-tsire na asali.[15] An sayar da tsarin da aka ba da izini ga kamfanonin magunguna na yammacin Pfizer da Phytopharm a matsayin magani na mu'ujiza don asarar nauyi.
Ƙalubalen da aka yi wa patent
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Bayan tabbatar da takardar shaidar, wakilan mutanen San, tare da goyon bayan duniya na masu sukar dokar takardar shaidarsa da masu ilimin halittu, sun bukaci a mayar da hakkinsu ga dukiyarsu ta ilimi. Bayan dogon jayayya, CSIR da mutanen San sun zo ga yarjejeniyar sirri ta 'rarraba amfanin' inda aka ba mutanen San sarauta, musayar ilimi da ƙirƙirar ayyuka daga masana'antar.[14]
Fata na Pineapple
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Tufafin pine, a cikin karni na sha tara, halitta ce ta musamman ga Philippines. Tare da fiber da aka tattara daga ganyen pineapples, tsarin saƙa na piña tsari ne mai rikitarwa da aiki mai yawa wanda ƙananan mata ke amfani dashi don yin ado da ƙwararrun ƙasar. Scraping, hanyar da akafi sani da ita don cire fiber na ganyen pineapple (PALF), yana farawa tare da cire ƙuƙwalwa, epidermis, da kwayar cuta daga bangarorin ganye tare da wuka mara kyau.[16] Wannan yana biye da fallasa fiber da kuma cire shi sosai don raba igiyoyi. Tare da taimakon na'urar bamboo, ana rarraba igiyoyi kuma a haɗa su tare ta hanyar tsari mai mahimmanci don ƙirƙirar filament mai cigaba. Bayan wasu shekaru na bincike da cigaban yiwuwar madadin fata a Royal College of Art a London, Dokta Carmen Hijosa, wanda yakafa kuma babban jami'in kirkirar kirkirar Ananas Anam, ya yi iƙirarin haƙƙin Piñatex, madadin fata da akayi daga PALF. Takardar shaidar kan wannan fasahar ta sa kusan bazai yiwu ba ga mutanen Philippines da 'yan asalin su sami yabo ga masana'antar da tayi tasiri sosai ga siffar tarihin su da al'adunsu ga tsararraki. Piñatex kwanan nan yayi haɗin gwiwa tare da Dole, yana alkawarin samar da fata mai yawa tare da kayan sharar gida daga gonakin su na pineapple a Philippines. Duk da tarihin tashin hankali na Dole Empire, Piñatex yana fadada kasuwar ta ta hanyar hada kai da alamomi kamar Chanel, H & M, da Nike. Takardar shaidar ta kasance har zuwa yau.
Greenwashing na kamfanoni
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Greenwashing kalma ce da masanin muhalli Jay Westervelt ya kirkira a cikin 1986, ma'ana da'awar ƙarya ta kamfanoni waɗanda ke bada ra'ayi na dorewa da muhalli.[17] Batare da bayyana ma'auni da burin da za'a iya ƙayyadewa na ajanda na muhalli na kamfanin ba, manyan kamfanoni dayawa suna ƙoƙari su zana hoton hotuna masu kyau da na muhallu. Abubuwan da aka sace daga al'ummomin 'yan asalin sau dayawa ana sayar dasu kuma ana sake amfani dasu a cikin ajanda na muhalli na kamfanoni. Saboda yanayin cin zarafin sarkar samarwa da kayan ado mai sauri, yawancin tarin 'kore' da kamfanoni suka fitar kawai suna inganta dabarun tallace-tallace da kara matsaloli tare da sharar masana'antu da Canjin yanayi.
Nike ta sami martani bayan Rahoton Tasirin 2020 wanda ya nuna rashin dorewa a cikin takalma. Don magance ra'ayoyin, Nike ta ƙaddamar da Tarin Farin Farin Ciki wanda ke nuna kayan fata na vegan na Ananas Anam da ƙirar 'ya'yan itace na wurare masu zafi da akayi wa ado a fadin Air Max 90, Air Max 95, Air Force One, da Air-Zoom.
The Conscious Collection da H&M ta fitar a cikin 2010 kuma tana da haɗin gwiwa tare da Ananas Anam don samar da jaket na fata.[18] Saboda bayanan da ba'a kammala su ba game da lalacewar Piñatex, Hukumar Abokin Ciniki ta Norway ta zargi alamar yaudarar abokan ciniki tare da cikakkun bayanai game da ikirarin dorewa da akayi. Alamar ta amsa ta hanyar cewa zasu yarda da zargi kuma su sadarwa da ƙarin darajar.
Sabbin Kokarin
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Yarjejeniyar Biological Diversity da Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta kirkira a 1992 ta bukaci kada ayi bioprospecting batare da yardar kasar data karbi bakuncin ba. Taron ya kammala cewa amfani da albarkatun gida don dalilai na magani da magunguna ya kamata ya haɗa da al'ummomin gargajiya na gida kuma ana raba ribar da fa'idodi da aka samar ta hanyar adalci.[19]
Ƙungiyar hadin gwiwar Biodiversity ta Duniya (ICBG) cibiyar sadarwa ce ta ayyukan binciken halittu da gwamnatin Amurka ta tallafawa. Duk da yake babban burin shine ganowa da bincike kan tsire-tsire masu dauke da sinadarai waɗanda zasu iya warkar da cututtuka a Amurka, ƙasashen dake karɓar bakuncin binciken na iya sa ran lada da fa'idodi masu daidaito. Ana inganta samar da aiki a cikin al'ummomi ta hanyar gudanar da matakan farko da bincike a cikin dakunan gwaje-gwaje na gida. Idan binciken ya haifar da magungunan kasuwanci, kashi 50% na sarauta ana saka hannun jari a cikin asusun cigaban al'umma da 'yan asalin ke gudanarwa.[19]
Dubi kuma
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- Dukiyar hankali
- Binciken halittu
- Greenwashing
- Kimiyya ta mulkin mallaka
Manazarta
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Rose, Janna. "Biopiracy: when indigenous knowledge is patented for profit". The Conversation (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-11-19.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Imran, Yoonus; Wijekoon, Nalaka; Gonawala, Lakmal; Chiang, Yu-Chung; De Silva, K. Ranil D. (18 February 2021). "Biopiracy: Abolish Corporate Hijacking of Indigenous Medicinal Entities". The Scientific World Journal. 2021: 1–8. doi:10.1155/2021/8898842. PMC 7910072. PMID 33679261 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Newman, David J.; Cragg, Gordon M. (25 March 2016). "Natural Products as Sources of New Drugs from 1981 to 2014". Journal of Natural Products. 79 (3): 629–661. doi:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b01055. PMID 26852623. S2CID 5809604.
- ↑ "Protectores VS Depredadores. Cartografía y visualización de la biopiratería de las medicinas tradicionales en Twitter". Retrieved 2024-05-16.
- ↑ "Visualización y cartografía de los territorios de la biopiratería de las medicinas tradicionales en Youtube". Retrieved 2024-05-16.
- ↑ Gressley, Gene M. (1999). "The Gold Rush in Miniature". The Western Historical Quarterly. 30 (4): 433–437. doi:10.2307/971418. JSTOR 971418.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 "Biopiracy: the largely lawless plundering of Earth's genetic wealth". Landscape News (in Turanci). 2020-12-15. Retrieved 2021-11-19.
- ↑ "General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)". Investopedia (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-11-19.
- ↑ "UNIDO presents its experience in developing Sri Lanka's cinnamon value chain at Geneva event | UNIDO". www.unido.org. Archived from the original on 2021-11-19. Retrieved 2021-11-19.
- ↑ "WTO | intellectual property - overview of TRIPS Agreement". www.wto.org. Retrieved 2021-11-28.
- ↑ "Table 1 | Biopiracy: Abolish Corporate Hijacking of Indigenous Medicinal Entities". www.hindawi.com. Retrieved 2021-11-28.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 "The neem tree - a case history of biopiracy". twn.my. Retrieved 2021-11-28.
- ↑ Wynberg, Rachel (1 November 2005). "Rhetoric, Realism and Benefit-Sharing: Use of Traditional Knowledge of Hoodia Species in the Development of an Appetite Suppressant". The Journal of World Intellectual Property. 7 (6): 851–876. doi:10.1111/j.1747-1796.2004.tb00231.x.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 "San Victorious in Bio-Piracy Case". www.culturalsurvival.org (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-11-28.
- ↑ "Struggle over Hoodia patent continues in South Africa". web.williams.edu. Archived from the original on 2022-09-20. Retrieved 2021-11-28.
- ↑ Roces, Mina (June 2013). "Dress, Status, and Identity in the Philippines: Pineapple Fiber Cloth and Ilustrado Fashion". Fashion Theory. 17 (3): 341–372. doi:10.2752/175174113X13597248661828. S2CID 192934902.
- ↑ "The deception of greenwashing in fast fashion". www.downtoearth.org.in (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-11-29.
- ↑ "CNN - Breaking News, Latest News and Videos". lite.cnn.com. Archived from the original on 2021-11-29. Retrieved 2021-11-29.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 corinnecluis (2006-06-14). "BIOPROSPECTING: A NEW WESTERN BLOCKBUSTER, AFTER THE GOLD RUSH, THE GENE RUSH | SCQ". www.scq.ubc.ca (in Turanci). Retrieved 2021-11-29.