- Arizona State University, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Department MemberGriffith University, Environmental Futures Research Institute, Faculty MemberUniversity of Cape Town, Archaeology, Department Memberadd
- Paleoanthropology, Middle Stone Age (Archaeology), Lithic Technology, Human Evolution, Archaeological Science, Experimental Archaeology, and 18 moreHuman-Environment Relations, Palaeolithic Archaeology, Evolutionary Archaeology, Earlier Stone Age (Archaeology), Hunters, Fishers and Gatherers' Archaeology, Lithics, Archaeology, Sub-Saharan Africa Archaeology (Prehistoric Archaeology), Anthropology, Archaeological Method & Theory, Evolution and Human Behavior, Symbolism, African Archaeology, Lithic Analysis, Ancient beads, Prehistoric Archaeology, Landscape Archaeology, and Environmental Archaeologyedit
There is a general trend for increased selectivity and longer transport distances of lithic raw materials for flintknapping in the Middle Stone Age compared to the Earlier Stone Age. The Stratum 4a assemblage at Kathu Pan 1, Northern... more
There is a general trend for increased selectivity and longer transport distances of lithic raw materials for flintknapping in the Middle Stone Age compared to the Earlier Stone Age. The Stratum 4a assemblage at Kathu Pan 1, Northern Cape, South Africa, which dates to ~500 ka, presents a unique opportunity for assessing Pleisto-cene raw material foraging strategies at the onset of the Middle Stone Age. In this paper, I identify potential primary and secondary sources for the raw materials used for lithic reduction at Kathu Pan 1 (KP1), and quantify raw material variability at nearby secondary sources. Patterns of raw material selection are identified within the KP1 Stratum 4a assemblage and compared to a sample from the underlying Stratum 4b, an Acheulean assemblage , to test for a temporal pattern. Raw material use during the Stratum 4a occupation of Kathu Pan, which is focused on abundant locally available resources for flintknapping, is consistent with the general pattern for Earlier Stone Age foraging strategies, and differs from evidence at some more recent Middle Stone Age sites that show longer transport distances and increased selectivity for certain high-value materials. While many aspects of technology change at KP1 ~500 ka, these technological shifts are not associated with a significant change in the kinds of raw material that were exploited. There are, however, differences in how the raw material was exploited. In Stratum 4a, there is evidence that hominins intentionally exploited the natural banding in banded ironstone formation in order to produce elongated products, and this evidence is lacking in the underlying Acheulean assemblage.
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The ∼500 thousand year old stratum 4a lithic assemblage from Kathu Pan 1, Northern Cape, South Africa, is one of the earliest occurrences of blade technology and is the oldest dated assemblage attributed to the Fauresmith industry. A... more
The ∼500 thousand year old stratum 4a lithic assemblage from Kathu Pan 1, Northern Cape, South Africa, is one of the earliest occurrences of blade technology and is the oldest dated assemblage attributed to the Fauresmith industry. A technological analysis of the Kathu Pan 1 stratum 4a assemblage reveals that blades were systematically removed using direct hard hammer percussion from organized blade cores that were extensively prepared via centripetal flaking. Some of these blades were retouched into points. Comparisons with published descriptions of the roughly contemporary blade assemblages from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya and Qesem Cave, Israel demonstrate that diverse blade production strategies were employed during the earlier half of the Middle Pleistocene. The diversity best supports a scenario in which laminar technology was invented in multiple places and times.
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Kudu Koppie is a stratified late Earlier Stone Age and Middle Stone Age archaeological site located in the northern Limpopo Province of South Africa. The prepared core reduction strategies are described and temporal trends across the... more
Kudu Koppie is a stratified late Earlier Stone Age and Middle Stone Age archaeological site located in the northern Limpopo Province of South Africa. The prepared core reduction strategies are described and temporal trends across the ESA–MSA boundary are presented. The prepared cores and endproducts of Kudu Koppie suggest that both the late ESA and MSA toolmakers employed the Levallois Volumetric Concept, but they often exploited a nodule’s natural convexities and form. The MSA toolmakers used a greater variety of prepared core methods and more intensively exploited cryptocrystalline and microcrystalline nodules, the scarcity of which may have resulted in a more ‘‘formalized’’ application of the Levallois Volumetric Concept. These observations are considered within the context of human behavioural evolution.
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Three aspects of the African Middle Stone Age (MSA) archaeological record - the use of symbolic resources, long-distance transfer of raw materials, and socalled ‘regional traditions’ in projectile point form - are examined within the... more
Three aspects of the African Middle Stone Age (MSA) archaeological record - the use of symbolic resources, long-distance transfer of raw materials, and socalled ‘regional traditions’ in projectile point form - are examined within the context of the modern human behaviour debate. It is argued that projectile points in the MSA may have manifested active (but not emblemic) style, and may have once symbolized social relations between obligated individuals. Archaeological evidence for notational items, personal ornaments, and ochre processing attest to the manipulation of symbolic resources by MSA hominids, and raw material sourcing studies suggest they were involved in regional exchange networks. Together this evidence supports a scenario in which projectile points are integrated into a communal system of exchange and may explain both the homogeneity of form across space and time, and the heterogeneity of form observed across the continent. This perspective implies an early origin for behavioral modernity at least 80 kya.
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In the Mapungubwe National Park, near the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo Rivers along South Africa’s northernmost borders with Botswana and Zimbabwe, the site of Kudu Koppie is characterized by three lithologically and... more
In the Mapungubwe National Park, near the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo Rivers along South Africa’s northernmost borders with Botswana and Zimbabwe, the site of Kudu Koppie is characterized by three lithologically and archaeologically distinct Stone Age units. From bottom to the top, these units are: (1) the Lower Kudu Koppie Unit (LKKU), which includes large tools such as handaxes, picks and cleavers, characteristic of a late Earlier Stone Age phase; (2) the Middle Kudu Koppie Unit (MKKU), which contains bifacially retouched points characteristic of a Middle Stone Age (MSA) industry; and (3) the Upper Kudu Koppie Unit (UKKU), which has sporadic segments and other tools characteristic of the Later Stone Age (LSA). A refitting and nodule analysis, which matches lithic pieces based on microscopic similarities in colour, texture, and other visible characteristics, demonstrates that site formation processes have caused some vertical displacement of material within, but not between the LKKU and MKKU. Within the national park, the Kudu Koppie sandstone outcrop is unusual in that it has an overhanging structure, which undoubtedly contributed to the initial formation and eventual preservation of the archaeological deposits. This paper presents several lines of evidence indicating that stratigraphic integrity at Kudu Koppie has been preserved and that the three horizons are in primary or near-primary context.
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Numerous societies throughout sub-Saharan Africa supported strong political systems prior to European colonization. Seldom, however, are the boundaries of large, dominant polities sharply delineated, making it difficult to identify the... more
Numerous societies throughout sub-Saharan Africa supported strong political systems prior to European colonization. Seldom, however, are the boundaries of large, dominant polities sharply delineated, making it difficult to identify the extent of their influence on neighbouring, peripheral communities. In this report, we present ceramic evidence from the lowland rain forest of southwest Cameroon suggesting macro-regional interactions that, during the last millennium, connected later Iron Age polities of Central Africa with Nigeria and Burkina Faso, West Africa. We propose that these rain-forest communities were engaging in long-distance regional interaction networks with societies much farther west than previously expected and thus formed the eastern periphery of the Yoruba culture sphere.
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Tools of the Trade presents a collection of academic papers from the 2005 Chacmool archaeological conference which includes a wide range of contributions from international archaeologists, senior professors and students alike. Each... more
Tools of the Trade presents a collection of academic papers from the 2005 Chacmool archaeological conference which includes a wide range of contributions from international archaeologists, senior professors and students alike. Each chapter focuses on the discussion and application of unique and innovative 'tools' for archaeological analysis and interpretation, including micro- and macro-botanical analysis, experimental study, off-site survey, lithic use-wear, ceramic petrography, DNA analysis, chaines operatoires, space syntax, and Geographic Information Systems. As a collective volume, Tools of the Trade also covers an impressive diversity of geographic regions and time periods, such as Precolumbian Mesoamerica, Plio-Pleistocene Africa, and prehistoric & historic North America. Finally, this volume provides a somewhat introspective look at the origins of tool use, technological development, and the means by which we have become the only species to ask the questions: What does it mean to be us and how can we find out?
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This special issue presents research from the 2010 event "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Graduate Students Lithic Symposium". The symposium was held at the University of Toronto from February 24-25 2010 and served as a venue for... more
This special issue presents research from the 2010 event "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Graduate Students Lithic Symposium". The symposium was held at the University of Toronto from February 24-25 2010 and served as a venue for graduate students from across North America to share current research methodologies with their peers interested in lithic technology studies. Included in this issue are an introduction from the organizers summarizing the event, seven papers presented at the symposium, and the complete list of abstracts.
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The aim of this thesis is to describe the prepared core reduction strategies employed at Kudu Koppie, a stratified terminal Earlier Stone age/Sangoan and MSA archaeological site located in the Limpopo region of northern South Africa, and... more
The aim of this thesis is to describe the prepared core reduction strategies employed at Kudu Koppie, a stratified terminal Earlier Stone age/Sangoan and MSA archaeological site located in the Limpopo region of northern South Africa, and relate lithic reduction to the variables of time and raw material. A technological analysis of the prepared cores and endproducts of Kudu Koppie suggests that both the Sangoan and MSA toolmakers employed the Levallois Volumetric Concept, but often exploited a nodule’s natural convexities and form. The MSA toolmakers used a greater variety of prepared core methods and more intensely exploited cryptocrystalline nodules, the scarcity of which may have resulted in a more “formalized” application of the Levallois Volumetric Concept. These observations are considered in light of their cognitive and economic implications, and within the context of the behavioural modernity debate.
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This dissertation describes the technological behaviors represented by the ~500-thousand-year-old stratum 4a lithic assemblage from Kathu Pan 1 (KP1), Northern Cape, South Africa, and situates new evidence from this site into evolutionary... more
This dissertation describes the technological behaviors represented by the ~500-thousand-year-old stratum 4a lithic assemblage from Kathu Pan 1 (KP1), Northern Cape, South Africa, and situates new evidence from this site into evolutionary context. The findings highlight the significance of the early Middle Pleistocene in Africa for understanding behavioral evolution in later Homo.
The stratum 4a assemblage at KP1 represents a mainly flake and blade-based industry that employed multiple strategies to produce blanks that were retouched into a variety of forms, including unifacially retouched points. Diverse core reduction strategies at KP1 suggests that KP1 hominins were flexible to the demands of local raw materials, consistent with increased degrees of ‘behavioral variability’ and adaptability.
Several lines of evidence indicate that the KP1 points were used as spear tips. Points from sites ~300 thousand years ago (ka) and younger were often used as weapon tips, and evidence for this behavior can now be pushed back to ~500 ka, with important implications for cognition and social behavior among early Middle Pleistocene hominins.
Raw materials in the KP1 assemblage were acquired from multiple local sources. Based on comparisons with a sample from the underlying stratum 4b Acheulean assemblage, the stratum 4a assemblage does not exhibit major changes in the kinds or quality of raw material exploited; thus, the technological changes represented by the stratum 4a assemblage are not explained by changes in raw material.
New evidence from KP1 poses problems for current models that link the appearance of Middle Stone Age technologies to speciation and dispersion ~300 ka. Middle Stone Age technologies appear in the African archaeological record by ~500 ka. The new timing for the origins of Middle Stone Age technologies provides a parsimonious explanation for technological similarities between the lithic assemblages of Neanderthals and modern Homo sapiens, who share a common ancestor in the early Middle Pleistocene. Limits imposed by the nature of the African archaeological record and chronometric analyses may explain why the antiquity of these technological changes was not previously recognized.
The stratum 4a assemblage at KP1 represents a mainly flake and blade-based industry that employed multiple strategies to produce blanks that were retouched into a variety of forms, including unifacially retouched points. Diverse core reduction strategies at KP1 suggests that KP1 hominins were flexible to the demands of local raw materials, consistent with increased degrees of ‘behavioral variability’ and adaptability.
Several lines of evidence indicate that the KP1 points were used as spear tips. Points from sites ~300 thousand years ago (ka) and younger were often used as weapon tips, and evidence for this behavior can now be pushed back to ~500 ka, with important implications for cognition and social behavior among early Middle Pleistocene hominins.
Raw materials in the KP1 assemblage were acquired from multiple local sources. Based on comparisons with a sample from the underlying stratum 4b Acheulean assemblage, the stratum 4a assemblage does not exhibit major changes in the kinds or quality of raw material exploited; thus, the technological changes represented by the stratum 4a assemblage are not explained by changes in raw material.
New evidence from KP1 poses problems for current models that link the appearance of Middle Stone Age technologies to speciation and dispersion ~300 ka. Middle Stone Age technologies appear in the African archaeological record by ~500 ka. The new timing for the origins of Middle Stone Age technologies provides a parsimonious explanation for technological similarities between the lithic assemblages of Neanderthals and modern Homo sapiens, who share a common ancestor in the early Middle Pleistocene. Limits imposed by the nature of the African archaeological record and chronometric analyses may explain why the antiquity of these technological changes was not previously recognized.
The location and distribution of macroscopic breaks (i.e. edge damage) on stone tools can inform archaeologists about stone tool function. The edge damage distribution method maps the location of damage scars along the edges of... more
The location and distribution of macroscopic breaks (i.e. edge damage) on stone tools can inform archaeologists about stone tool function. The edge damage distribution method maps the location of damage scars along the edges of individual tools without attributing causation to any of the damage scars. It then pools the data for the whole assemblage of tools to generate damage frequencies at different edge locations. Using this method, archaeological and experimental frequency distributions can be statistically compared, and hypotheses about stone tool function can be tested.
In this workshop you will learn how to carry out an edge damage distribution analysis. While participating in this workshop, you will also help to generate an experimental assemblage of cutting tools.
The method involves several major steps; acquiring/generating the stone tool sample, photography, image georectification, edge damage mapping in ArcGIS, and data processing. This workshop is set up as 4 separate stations, where you will carry out each of these steps.
In this workshop you will learn how to carry out an edge damage distribution analysis. While participating in this workshop, you will also help to generate an experimental assemblage of cutting tools.
The method involves several major steps; acquiring/generating the stone tool sample, photography, image georectification, edge damage mapping in ArcGIS, and data processing. This workshop is set up as 4 separate stations, where you will carry out each of these steps.
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"Coauthors: Kyle S. Brown, Simen Oestmo, Telmo Pereira, Kathryn Ranhorn, Benjamin J. Schoville, and Curtis W. Marean. Pinnacle Point Site 5-6 (PP5-6) on the south coast of South Africa provides a high resolution and nearly continuous... more
"Coauthors: Kyle S. Brown, Simen Oestmo, Telmo Pereira, Kathryn Ranhorn, Benjamin J. Schoville, and Curtis W. Marean. Pinnacle Point Site 5-6 (PP5-6) on the south coast of South Africa provides a high resolution and nearly continuous record of Late Pleistocene occupation between ~90 and 50 ka. Fourteen meters of stacked occupation layers have been excavated with total station plotting and dated by 81 optically stimulated luminescence age estimates. We present the results of the analysis of more than 14,000 lithic artifacts from the sequence to examine aspects of change and continuity in raw material selection and heat-treatment, core reduction strategies, and tool types through time. At PP5-6, fine-grained raw materials (i.e., silcrete, quartz, chalcedony) dominate the assemblage after ~70 ka. Quartzite is more common ~90-70 ka, though some stratigraphic units during this period are silcrete-dominant. Quartz use peaks between ~70-63 ka. Based on the size-variability of lithic artifacts with remnant pre-heat treatment scars, silcrete nodules of various sizes and morphologies were heat-treated. Diverse core reduction methods were used throughout the sequence for blade, bladelet, and flake production, and these methods included the use of minimally-crested blades, pyramidal blade cores, and bipolar percussion. Backed pieces occur from ~70-50 ka, but with fluctuating frequencies and morphologies. Unretouched points are most common between ~90-80 ka and again at ~50 ka, and are rare between ~70 and 50 ka. These results are situated within the context of the African Middle and Later Stone Age to consider the nature of technological change and adaptation in the Late Pleistocene. Our comparative framework includes contemporary MSA sequences at Diepkloof Cave, Klasies River, Sibudu Cave, Border Cave, and younger Later Stone Age assemblages. The presented sequence is critical for understanding Late Pleistocene technological variability and how environmental change influenced the technological decisions of early modern humans."
Benjamin J. Schoville, Erik Otarola-Castillo, and Jayne Wilkins. Recent genetic and fossil evidence places the origins of the modern human lineage and anatomy at ~200-150ka ago in Africa. This time period is encompassed by MIS6, a... more
Benjamin J. Schoville, Erik Otarola-Castillo, and Jayne Wilkins.
Recent genetic and fossil evidence places the origins of the modern human lineage and anatomy at ~200-150ka ago in Africa. This time period is encompassed by MIS6, a long-lasting glacial phase which is estimated to have caused widespread aridity in Africa. Archaeological sites that date to this time period are uncommon. A single population origin model presumes that one region in Africa had high probability of supporting a population during MIS6 that led to all humans alive today and predicts population separation. An alternative multiple populations model argues for population interconnection throughout Africa during the evolution of modern humans. This model predicts multiple connected regions of high probability for population occurrence. To test these competing models, a Maximum Entropy species distribution model (SDM) using presence of recent hunter-gatherers during the Holocene are projected to a glacial period in Africa (LGM) to approximate MIS6 conditions. The model performs well compared to a random prediction model (AUC=0.784). The predicted glacial SDM suggests that widespread areas in Africa during MIS6 were unlikely to support substantial populations, consistent with the single population model. However, several large isolated regions appear to have strong likelihood of population occurrence, consistent with the multiple populations model."
Recent genetic and fossil evidence places the origins of the modern human lineage and anatomy at ~200-150ka ago in Africa. This time period is encompassed by MIS6, a long-lasting glacial phase which is estimated to have caused widespread aridity in Africa. Archaeological sites that date to this time period are uncommon. A single population origin model presumes that one region in Africa had high probability of supporting a population during MIS6 that led to all humans alive today and predicts population separation. An alternative multiple populations model argues for population interconnection throughout Africa during the evolution of modern humans. This model predicts multiple connected regions of high probability for population occurrence. To test these competing models, a Maximum Entropy species distribution model (SDM) using presence of recent hunter-gatherers during the Holocene are projected to a glacial period in Africa (LGM) to approximate MIS6 conditions. The model performs well compared to a random prediction model (AUC=0.784). The predicted glacial SDM suggests that widespread areas in Africa during MIS6 were unlikely to support substantial populations, consistent with the single population model. However, several large isolated regions appear to have strong likelihood of population occurrence, consistent with the multiple populations model."
The stratum 4a Fauresmith-designated assemblage at Kathu Pan 1 (KP1) in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa provides early evidence for many Middle Stone Age (MSA) innovations, including systematic blade production, Levallois core... more
The stratum 4a Fauresmith-designated assemblage at Kathu Pan 1 (KP1) in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa provides early evidence for many Middle Stone Age (MSA) innovations, including systematic blade production, Levallois core reduction, and lithic-tipped spears. The stratum 4a assemblage has been chronometrically dated by OSL to 464±47 ka and combined U-series/ESR to 542 +140/-107 ka. While surprising, these data are not contradictory with the African archaeological record. Other archaeological occurrences dated to between ~500 and 300 ka also contain MSA elements. Handaxes persist for a long time in Africa, until ~130 ka, but after ~500 ka, they occur in association with MSA technologies. At KP1, the stratum 4a Fauresmith handaxes are more weathered and patinated than the rest of the 4a assemblage, suggesting the possibility the handaxe component is intrusive. The relatively recent advances in chronometric dating together with weak archaeological visibility during the early Middle Pleistocene could explain why the MSA has not been previously reported from contexts >300 ka. The rough temporal correlation of the appearance of MSA and hafted spear technologies with the divergence of the Neanderthal and Homo sapiens lineages ~800-400 ka gives a parsimonious explanation for technological similarities between MSA and Middle Paleolithic assemblages.
It is frequently suggested that MSA points were hafted and used as spear tips, but so far only a limited number of use wear and residue analyses of MSA points support this view. There have been no functional studies of points securely... more
It is frequently suggested that MSA points were hafted and used as spear tips, but so far only a limited number of use wear and residue analyses of MSA points support this view. There have been no functional studies of points securely dated to >250 ka. However, the manufacture and use of lithic-tipped hunting weapons, which changes the efficiency of prey acquisition and foraging, has important implications for hominin evolution. At Kathu Pan 1 (KP1), South Africa, points were recovered from sediments dated by OSL to 464±47 and combined U-series/ESR to 542 +140/-107. Based on the co-occurrence of blades, points, and handaxes, the assemblage has been attributed to the ‘Fauresmith’ industry, variably designated as early MSA, late Earlier Stone Age, or ‘transitional’. Here we report results from a functional analysis of 210 points and point fragments from KP1 and replication experiments using hafted points and a calibrated crossbow. Edge damage was identified with 10-50x magnification, and systematically mapped using GIS software. Three hypotheses for edge damage formation on KP1 points were evaluated: use as armature tips, use as cutting tools, and post-depositional processes. Multiple lines of evidence support the hypothesis that KP1 points were used as spear tips. Edge damage distribution on ventral lateral margins is inconsistent with a distribution resulting solely from post-depositional processes. Damage on KP1 points increases significantly at the tip, and the left and right sides have equivalent distributions, consistent with experimental spear points but inconsistent with cutting tools and taphonomic patterning. ‘Diagnostic impact fractures’, proximal modification, and point morphometrics provide additional supporting evidence for the spear tip hypothesis. This study documents the earliest evidence for hafted hunting weapons.
To assess the argument that the unique characteristics of Fauresmith lithic assemblages (i.e. blades and small handaxes) are the consequence of local raw material quality, a study of raw material availability and distribution in primary... more
To assess the argument that the unique characteristics of Fauresmith lithic assemblages (i.e. blades and small handaxes) are the consequence of local raw material quality, a study of raw material availability and distribution in primary and secondary sources in the region surrounding KP1 was conducted. Nine locations that represent the range of raw material availability for KP1 were systematically sampled from outcrops and stream and river beds. Lithology, metrics, form, and workability were recorded for sampled materials within each location. The geological distributions are compared to the archaeological assemblage from the Fauresmith and Acheulean levels of KP1.
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Stratum 4a at the site of Kathu Pan 1 in central South Africa has yielded a rich Middle Pleistocene blade assemblage radiometrically dated to 500 ka. Presented here are the results of a technological analysis of the lithic component of... more
Stratum 4a at the site of Kathu Pan 1 in central South Africa has yielded a rich Middle Pleistocene blade assemblage radiometrically dated to 500 ka. Presented here are the results of a technological analysis of the lithic component of strata 4a, which has been attributed to the Fauresmith industry. The chaînes opératoires of blade production at Kathu Pan are compared and contrasted with the published analyses of other Earlier and Middle Stone Age blade assemblages, including the 500 ka assemblage at Kapthurin Formation, Kenya and the Howiesons Poort assemblages at Rose Cottage Cave and Klasies River, South Africa.
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Development of the capacity for symbolically-mediated behavior was an important milestone in the evolution of Homo sapiens, but acceptance of most markings as symbolic media is based on subjective/expert opinion (argument from authority)... more
Development of the capacity for symbolically-mediated behavior was an important milestone in the evolution of Homo sapiens, but acceptance of most markings as symbolic media is based on subjective/expert opinion (argument from authority) rather than objective testing. The statistical method advanced here tests whether line configurations engraved on the surface of objects differ from randomly-generated line configurations. Pattern significance is calculated from the observed frequency with which a single line configuration may be generated from a distribution of 9,999 randomized line configurations. Line configurations that are significantly different from random are more likely to be part of a patterned system of shared meaning and to have served as symbols intended to transfer information. Two control samples were analyzed here to test the feasibility and reliability of the method; (1) Later Stone Age incised stones from Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape, South Africa, and (2) “natural” pieces of stone collected from outside Wonderwerk Cave that exhibit lines due to the geological processes of cleavage and abrasion. The results conform fairly well to expectation. 1 of 10 of the natural pieces and 5 out of the 12 of the LSA pieces exhibit line configurations that differ significantly from a randomly generated pattern. This analysis reveals that natural processes can occasionally result in non-random configurations and that not all unequivocally engraved objects yield line configurations that are significantly different from random. The intent of this research is to expand on a method grounded in entropy information theory and move towards a more objective approach to exploring the origins of symbolic communication.
Acknowledgments: We thank Michael Chazan for facilitating access to the Wonderwerk incised LSA material and Colin Fortune, David Morris, and Leon Jacobson for enabling access to the material housed at the McGregor Museum, Kimberley.
Acknowledgments: We thank Michael Chazan for facilitating access to the Wonderwerk incised LSA material and Colin Fortune, David Morris, and Leon Jacobson for enabling access to the material housed at the McGregor Museum, Kimberley.