Papers by Maurizio Battisti
Atti dell'Accademia Roveretana degli Agiati, 2023
This contribution examines an old, much discussed and controversial finding. This would be the ca... more This contribution examines an old, much discussed and controversial finding. This would be the casual discovery of some burials with grave goods, which occurred in 1902 in the hamlet of Molini (Nogaredo, TN) by a South Tyrolean teacher with an understanding of natural sciences, history and archaeology. The discoverer managed to save only a few artefacts which were then lost. Thanks to the careful re-examination of the description of the material found, taken from the little information published at the time, a comparison of the lost finds with some artefacts
still preserved today in the collections of the museum of the Franciscan Convent of Bolzano is proposed, trying to attribute an era and a precise localization to the archaeological context.
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Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto, 2023
This contribution examines four anatomical bronze plates, representing three feet and a hand, fro... more This contribution examines four anatomical bronze plates, representing three feet and a hand, from the village of Coredo in Val di Non (Trento), which are currently conserved in the Civic Museum of Rovereto. The purpose of this study is not only to reintroduce these artifacts, which were previously considered lost, to the scientific community but also to shed light on their function, provide contextualization, and establish their chronological placement. We can propose a possible timeframe ranging from the 7th to the 5th century BC by comparing the typology, the general morphology, and the decorative style of these finds with similar examples. While the specific archaeological context of their discovery remains unknown, we can hypothesize their original function based on the fact that anatomical bronze artifacts, similar to the ones in question, are typically found in sanctuary areas or necropolises. These objects are often regarded as votive offerings, items believed to possess apotropaic power, or components of anthropomorphic simulacra.
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I Quattro Vicariati e le zone limitrofe, 2022
In this informative article, news is given of the discovery of a sword datable to the Late Bronze... more In this informative article, news is given of the discovery of a sword datable to the Late Bronze Age, at a high altitude on Monte Baldo. The discovery is contextualized here by widening the gaze to the surrounding area and its meaning is hypothesized, probably linked to ritual situations.
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This book presents the results of two different excavation campaigns in a prehistoric archaeologi... more This book presents the results of two different excavation campaigns in a prehistoric archaeological site in a deep cave in Trentino Alto Adige (Castel Corno, Isera, Trento, Italy). The excavations uncovered a number of Early Bronze Age tombs deep in the cave and, outside, the remains of a settlement. The Archaeological Excavations in the Castel Corno Caves presents the results of two different excavation campaigns in a prehistoric archaeological site in a deep cave in Trentino Alto Adige (Castel Corno, Isera, Trento, Italy). The excavations uncovered a number of tombs deep in the cave and, outside, the remains of a settlement. The site is significant for the excellent preservation of the artefacts and of the animal and human bones, a result of the depth of the cave. Despite damage caused by grave robbers, a considerable quantity of data was recovered enabling the partial reconstruction of human activity in this area. In the tombs the remains of seven individuals were excavated. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the tombs can be dated between the end of the Copper Age and the beginning of the Early Bronze Age (25th–21st centuries BC), but the occupation of the site, for ritual and settlement purposes, continued at least until the end of the Early Bronze Age (18th–17th centuries BC).
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Voce Comune 75, 2022
Informative article that tells the results of a study carried out on some ceramic finds dating ba... more Informative article that tells the results of a study carried out on some ceramic finds dating back to the Early Bronze Age found at the Sanctuary of San Colombano (Trambileno, TN, Italy)
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Monografie del MUSE 7 , 2022
This is a chapter from the book "Memoirs of high lands.
Archeology of a pastoral landscape betwee... more This is a chapter from the book "Memoirs of high lands.
Archeology of a pastoral landscape between Pasubio and the Little Dolomites". This chapter analyzes the archaeological evidence from the Neolithic to the Roman age, attempting to reconstruct the population and methods of attendance at high altitudes.
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Suppl. Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto 37, 2022
In this contribution the authors present the results of the work carried out in recent years by t... more In this contribution the authors present the results of the work carried out in recent years by the Archaeological Section of the Rovereto Civic Museum Foundation, with the support of the Cassa di Risparmio di Trento and Rovereto Foundation, on the correspondence of Paolo Orsi, acquired by the museum in 2013. After the explanation of the main stages of the project of archiving, cataloging and online publication of the letters, the interest of Orsi’s correspondence from a content point of view and
some examples are presented that demonstrate how these documents can provide interesting information on sites and archaeological finds in the Trentino region.
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Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto 38, 2022
The article examines the charred botanical remains from the archaeological layers directly in con... more The article examines the charred botanical remains from the archaeological layers directly in contact with the burials found in Castel Corno Caves, dated between the end of the Copper Age and the beginning of the Early Bronze Age (25th-21th centuries BC). The organic finds were collected by flotation and water sieving, carried out outside the caves during the excavations by the Rovereto Civic Museum in 1998. Based on comparative carpological and anthracological examinations, we formulate hypotheses aimed at reconstructing the surrounding rural and natural
environment at the time of the burials. The results confirm the worship and funerary use of the caves, and highlight the presence of a forest dominated by broad-leaved trees such as oak, ash and beech. Human activities are documented instead by the presence of remains of cereals, legumes and fruit. Among these, the remains of corneliancherries stand out for quantity, perhaps used to produce alcoholic beverages.
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RICERCHE ARCHEOLOGICHE A SANT'ANDREA DI LOPPIO (TRENTO, ITALIA) L'AREA DELLA CHIESA. , 2020
In this chapter nine flint artefacts found in Sectors C and C1 at the site of Sant’Andrea of Lopp... more In this chapter nine flint artefacts found in Sectors C and C1 at the site of Sant’Andrea of Loppio are studied; mostof them were discovered in residual material in abandoned layers of Medieval structures or in superficial layersof recent formation. Three of these are prehistoric artefacts which could go back to the Copper Age (4th-3rdmillennium BC), while the others are to be ascribed to flints of the Medieval era. One of the prehistoric remains, asmall nodule of flint, was also used in historical times for fire lighting.In order to recognise the different use-wear traces, we carried out some proofs of experimental archaeology,striking some flints with an iron flintlock very similar to those used in Medieval times, analysing the result with astereo-microscope with reflected light. Comparing the experimental traces with those left on the flints found inthe excavations with those on the flint tools found at the Medieval site of Castel Corno which is not far from Loppiowe were able to distinguish more reliably those used to strike for making sparks in historical times. The mostsignificant signs of wear, useful in recognising flintstones tools, consist of minute encrustations of iron oxide andtypical concoidal microfractures very closely spaced, giving the edge of the flint a rounded profile.It is very difficult to be able to distinguish between flintstones used during the Late Antique/Early Medieval periodand flintstones used in the Middle Ages on the basis of their use-wear signs in that the shape and size of steelstrikers have not undergone important variations in the last 1,500 years. Moreover it has to be underlined that inthe Middle Ages, not only on this site, flint chips of various shapes were often used, generally rough, without anyparticular previous working. Therefore it is impossible to create tables of chronotypological comparison based onthe morphology of the finds.Based on the colour of the flint it is possible to postulate that the raw material came from local rock formations, tobe found both on Mount Baldo to the South and to the North on Mount Bondone.
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In: Voce Comune 74, 2022
The informative article briefly recounts the human presence in the Leno valleys from the Paleolit... more The informative article briefly recounts the human presence in the Leno valleys from the Paleolithic to the Romanization of the territory.
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Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto, 37: 17-30., 2021
This article reports an occasional finding which occurred in early 2019 near the hill of Castel S... more This article reports an occasional finding which occurred in early 2019 near the hill of Castel Sajori (Ala, TN, Italy). We describe a bronze flanged axe, delivered to the Fondazione Museo Civico di Rovereto. Some typological features bring it closer to the “B” variant of the Belverde type, which is documented only in Trentino Alto Adige and dates back to the 12th century BC. The general morphology, however, recalls forms that were widespread during the 13th century BC. For comparison, we report here a second unpublished find: a small bronze flanged axe dating back to the 11th century B.C., found in the nearby bed of the Sorna stream. These axes add to previous findings of the late Bronze Age in the surrounding area. In particular, they provide further documentation on the territory between Brentonico and Castel Sajori, which has provided varied material evidence dating back to the 13th-11th centuries B.C.
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Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto 36, 2020
Th is paper reports on the presence of large rock carvings within the territory of Rovereto (Tren... more Th is paper reports on the presence of large rock carvings within the territory of Rovereto (Trento, Italy) in an area characterized by the presence of smooth, steeply sloping rocky slopes, the slide surfaces
of the ancient landslide of Lavini di Marco.
Among these carvings stands out a large boat (almost 17 meters long), which appears to be a wheeled warship with two chimneys and two cannons. Th e engraving probably dates back to the second half
of the 19th century. Th rough interviews with the inhabitants of the nearby village of Marco and the ensuing search for comparisons, it was possible to identify the author of at least some engravings around
the boat as Luigi Zeni, a religious and visionary artist who lived in the nineteenth century. However, it is difficult to say who is the author of the steamer, although it can be hypothesized, based on the
type of artifact and its historical context, that it was made between the 50s and 60s of the nineteenth century probably by a person who saw similar boats in use on the Danube.
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Maurina B., Postinger C.A., Richerche archeologiche a Sant'Andrea di Loppio (Trento, Italia). L'area della chiesa, 2020
In this chapter nine flint artefacts found in Sectors C and C1 at the site of Sant’Andrea of Lopp... more In this chapter nine flint artefacts found in Sectors C and C1 at the site of Sant’Andrea of Loppio are studied; most of them were discovered in residual material in abandoned layers of Medieval structures or in superficial layers of recent formation. Three of these are prehistoric artefacts which could go back to the Copper Age (4th-3rd millennium BC), while the others are to be ascribed to flints of the Medieval era. One of the prehistoric remains, a small nodule of flint, was also used in historical times for fire lighting. In order to recognise the different use-wear traces, we carried out some proofs of experimental archaeology, striking some flints with an iron flintlock very similar to those used in Medieval times, analysing the result with a stereo-microscope with reflected light. Comparing the experimental traces with those left on the flints found in the excavations with those on the flint tools found at the Medieval site of Castel Corno which is not far from Loppio we were able to distinguish more reliably those used to strike for making sparks in historical times. The most
significant signs of wear, useful in recognising flintstones tools, consist of minute encrustations of iron oxide and typical concoidal microfractures very closely spaced, giving the edge of the flint a rounded profile. It is very difficult to be able to distinguish between flintstones used during the Late Antique/Early Medieval period and flintstones used in the Middle Ages on the basis of their use-wear signs in that the shape and size of steel strikers have not undergone important variations in the last 1,500 years. Moreover it has to be underlined that in the Middle Ages, not only on this site, flint chips of various shapes were often used, generally rough, without any particular previous working. Therefore it is impossible to create tables of chronotypological comparison based on the morphology of the finds. Based on the colour of the flint it is possible to postulate that the raw material came from local rock formations, to be found both on Mount Baldo to the South and to the North on Mount Bondone.
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Le sepolture preistoriche delle Grotte di Castel Corno di Isera (TN), 2020
The paper presents the anthropological studies carried out on the human bones found in the archae... more The paper presents the anthropological studies carried out on the human bones found in the archaeological excavations led by Museo Civico di Rovereto in 1998 and 1999 in the Castel Corno Caves, located at about 800 meters of altitude between the villages of Patone and Lenzima, in the municipality of Isera (Trento, Italy). The burials, unfortunately looted by illegal excavations, can be dated between the end of the Copper Age and the Early Bronze Age. Almost all the bones come from Cave 3. The bones and teeth, 190 in number, found in this cave, are of at least 1 foetus, 3 subadult respectively of about 8 years old and 2 of about 11 years old, and 2 adults of undetermined sex. The only find discovered in Cave 1 is a vertebra of an adult. Only a right radius and ulna, and their contralateral, have been found in connection and so many bones remain unattributed. There are present enamel hypoplasia and cribra orbitalia, caries, calculus and dental abrasion. In general, the dental situation shows many growth anomalies, maybe of an hereditary character or an endemic aspect of the population. Furthermore, the bones show a growth retardation regarding dental aging. The one skull and the fragment of fibula show charred areas probably due to taphonomic events or to post-depositional rituals.
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Pessina A. & Tarantini M., ARCHIVI DELL’ARCHEOLOGIA ITALIANA Atti della giornata di studi Archivi dell’archeologia italiana. Progetti, problemi, prospettive Firenze, 16 giugno 2016, 2020
In this article we give preliminary information about an inedit corrispondence recently acquisite... more In this article we give preliminary information about an inedit corrispondence recently acquisited from Fondazione Museo Civico di Rovereto. The destinatary of these letters was Paolo Orsi, famous italian archaeologist lived betwenn the second half of the 19th century and the begin of the 20th.
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Archeologia delle Alpi, 2019
In this paper we present a new findig made in the southern part of the Trentino-Alto Adige Region... more In this paper we present a new findig made in the southern part of the Trentino-Alto Adige Region. We refer to two bronze axes dated back at the VII-VI century B.C .. Both artifacts was found in Vallarsa valley, near the village of Foxi and both present a mark in the same position.
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Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto, 2018
Th is article reports occasional fi ndings between the 1980s and 1990s on the southern slopes of ... more Th is article reports occasional fi ndings between the 1980s and 1990s on the southern slopes of
Mount Stivo (Trentino Alto Adige, Italy). Th ese are ceramic and siliceous fi nds from three diff erent areas,
here defi ned as zones A, B and C. Zones B and C gave two fl int arrowheads, presumably ascribable to
Copper Age (zone C) and Early Bronze Age (zone B). Th ese artefacts suggest an occasional use of the
area, probably for hunting and/or pastoral purposes. Th e situation is diff erent for zone A, in a location
called Becchetta (Ronzo-Chienis). Here the fi nds are more numerous and indicate the presence of an
archaeological site datable, according to the ceramic typology, at the beginning of the Iron Age (IX-
VIII century BC). Th e high altitude, the terrain roughness and the particular geomorphology of the
area, suggest the presence of an ancient place of worship that could fi nd comparisons in the so-called
Brandopferplatz, considering also the presence of calcined bones referable to domestic fauna.
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Lost & Found, Archäologie in Südtirol vor 1919, Archeologia in Alto Adige prima del 1919, 2019
A major prehistoric burial site in in Pfatten/Vadena near Stadlhof/Maso Stadio was discovered aro... more A major prehistoric burial site in in Pfatten/Vadena near Stadlhof/Maso Stadio was discovered around the middle of the 19th century. Most of the artefacts, mainly of bronze, were added to the collection of the Countess of Thun, who funded the first excavations. By contrast, other finds from later excavations initiated by the priest of Kurtatsch/Cortaccia Neurauter, were sent to Fortunato Zeni and herefore ended up in the archaeological collection of the Museo Civico di Rovereto. After more than a century and two world wars, the collection of artefacts, some of which were believed to be lost, were gathered together again almost in their entirety and displayed in the museum’s permanent exhibition. The special exhibition that is the object of this catalogue presents and describes a selection of artefacts from Rovereto. It covers a large time period: from the late Bronze Age to the early Middle Ages.
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Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto, a.2016, v.32, 2018
“Bronzefunde” on the heights. New finds on the Trentino side of the Baldo mountain.
This artic... more “Bronzefunde” on the heights. New finds on the Trentino side of the Baldo mountain.
This article reports two recent occasional finds on the northern side of the Baldo mountain range. A bronze socketed chisel, found in the Natural Reserve of Corna Piana (Brentonico, TN), dating from the ninth to the eighth century B.C., and a bronze knife with ring ended openwork handle near Malga Artilone (Avio, TN), dating from the twelfth to the eleventh century B.C. Both fi ndings document the use of high altitudes between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, and could be associated with cultual contexts Brandopferplatz, Höhenfunde or Passfunde).
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Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto, a. 2016, v.32, 2018
Prehistory of the Leno valleys
This paper presents a comprehensive overview of all archaeologi... more Prehistory of the Leno valleys
This paper presents a comprehensive overview of all archaeological discoveries in prehistoric times, documented in the last two centuries in the municipalities included in the catchment area of the Leno torrent: Terragnolo, Vallarsa, Trambileno and, partially, Rovereto. Chronologically, we start from the end of the Upper Paleolithic to arrive at the second Iron Age. We take this opportunity to publish several new discoveries that shed light on a territory that has received little investigation until now. Of particular notice some bronze artifacts found in Vallarsa and dating back to the early Iron Age: two axes found in val Foxi and a boat-shaped brooch with an engraved decoration on the bow found in Albaredo.
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Papers by Maurizio Battisti
still preserved today in the collections of the museum of the Franciscan Convent of Bolzano is proposed, trying to attribute an era and a precise localization to the archaeological context.
Archeology of a pastoral landscape between Pasubio and the Little Dolomites". This chapter analyzes the archaeological evidence from the Neolithic to the Roman age, attempting to reconstruct the population and methods of attendance at high altitudes.
some examples are presented that demonstrate how these documents can provide interesting information on sites and archaeological finds in the Trentino region.
environment at the time of the burials. The results confirm the worship and funerary use of the caves, and highlight the presence of a forest dominated by broad-leaved trees such as oak, ash and beech. Human activities are documented instead by the presence of remains of cereals, legumes and fruit. Among these, the remains of corneliancherries stand out for quantity, perhaps used to produce alcoholic beverages.
of the ancient landslide of Lavini di Marco.
Among these carvings stands out a large boat (almost 17 meters long), which appears to be a wheeled warship with two chimneys and two cannons. Th e engraving probably dates back to the second half
of the 19th century. Th rough interviews with the inhabitants of the nearby village of Marco and the ensuing search for comparisons, it was possible to identify the author of at least some engravings around
the boat as Luigi Zeni, a religious and visionary artist who lived in the nineteenth century. However, it is difficult to say who is the author of the steamer, although it can be hypothesized, based on the
type of artifact and its historical context, that it was made between the 50s and 60s of the nineteenth century probably by a person who saw similar boats in use on the Danube.
significant signs of wear, useful in recognising flintstones tools, consist of minute encrustations of iron oxide and typical concoidal microfractures very closely spaced, giving the edge of the flint a rounded profile. It is very difficult to be able to distinguish between flintstones used during the Late Antique/Early Medieval period and flintstones used in the Middle Ages on the basis of their use-wear signs in that the shape and size of steel strikers have not undergone important variations in the last 1,500 years. Moreover it has to be underlined that in the Middle Ages, not only on this site, flint chips of various shapes were often used, generally rough, without any particular previous working. Therefore it is impossible to create tables of chronotypological comparison based on the morphology of the finds. Based on the colour of the flint it is possible to postulate that the raw material came from local rock formations, to be found both on Mount Baldo to the South and to the North on Mount Bondone.
Mount Stivo (Trentino Alto Adige, Italy). Th ese are ceramic and siliceous fi nds from three diff erent areas,
here defi ned as zones A, B and C. Zones B and C gave two fl int arrowheads, presumably ascribable to
Copper Age (zone C) and Early Bronze Age (zone B). Th ese artefacts suggest an occasional use of the
area, probably for hunting and/or pastoral purposes. Th e situation is diff erent for zone A, in a location
called Becchetta (Ronzo-Chienis). Here the fi nds are more numerous and indicate the presence of an
archaeological site datable, according to the ceramic typology, at the beginning of the Iron Age (IX-
VIII century BC). Th e high altitude, the terrain roughness and the particular geomorphology of the
area, suggest the presence of an ancient place of worship that could fi nd comparisons in the so-called
Brandopferplatz, considering also the presence of calcined bones referable to domestic fauna.
This article reports two recent occasional finds on the northern side of the Baldo mountain range. A bronze socketed chisel, found in the Natural Reserve of Corna Piana (Brentonico, TN), dating from the ninth to the eighth century B.C., and a bronze knife with ring ended openwork handle near Malga Artilone (Avio, TN), dating from the twelfth to the eleventh century B.C. Both fi ndings document the use of high altitudes between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, and could be associated with cultual contexts Brandopferplatz, Höhenfunde or Passfunde).
This paper presents a comprehensive overview of all archaeological discoveries in prehistoric times, documented in the last two centuries in the municipalities included in the catchment area of the Leno torrent: Terragnolo, Vallarsa, Trambileno and, partially, Rovereto. Chronologically, we start from the end of the Upper Paleolithic to arrive at the second Iron Age. We take this opportunity to publish several new discoveries that shed light on a territory that has received little investigation until now. Of particular notice some bronze artifacts found in Vallarsa and dating back to the early Iron Age: two axes found in val Foxi and a boat-shaped brooch with an engraved decoration on the bow found in Albaredo.
still preserved today in the collections of the museum of the Franciscan Convent of Bolzano is proposed, trying to attribute an era and a precise localization to the archaeological context.
Archeology of a pastoral landscape between Pasubio and the Little Dolomites". This chapter analyzes the archaeological evidence from the Neolithic to the Roman age, attempting to reconstruct the population and methods of attendance at high altitudes.
some examples are presented that demonstrate how these documents can provide interesting information on sites and archaeological finds in the Trentino region.
environment at the time of the burials. The results confirm the worship and funerary use of the caves, and highlight the presence of a forest dominated by broad-leaved trees such as oak, ash and beech. Human activities are documented instead by the presence of remains of cereals, legumes and fruit. Among these, the remains of corneliancherries stand out for quantity, perhaps used to produce alcoholic beverages.
of the ancient landslide of Lavini di Marco.
Among these carvings stands out a large boat (almost 17 meters long), which appears to be a wheeled warship with two chimneys and two cannons. Th e engraving probably dates back to the second half
of the 19th century. Th rough interviews with the inhabitants of the nearby village of Marco and the ensuing search for comparisons, it was possible to identify the author of at least some engravings around
the boat as Luigi Zeni, a religious and visionary artist who lived in the nineteenth century. However, it is difficult to say who is the author of the steamer, although it can be hypothesized, based on the
type of artifact and its historical context, that it was made between the 50s and 60s of the nineteenth century probably by a person who saw similar boats in use on the Danube.
significant signs of wear, useful in recognising flintstones tools, consist of minute encrustations of iron oxide and typical concoidal microfractures very closely spaced, giving the edge of the flint a rounded profile. It is very difficult to be able to distinguish between flintstones used during the Late Antique/Early Medieval period and flintstones used in the Middle Ages on the basis of their use-wear signs in that the shape and size of steel strikers have not undergone important variations in the last 1,500 years. Moreover it has to be underlined that in the Middle Ages, not only on this site, flint chips of various shapes were often used, generally rough, without any particular previous working. Therefore it is impossible to create tables of chronotypological comparison based on the morphology of the finds. Based on the colour of the flint it is possible to postulate that the raw material came from local rock formations, to be found both on Mount Baldo to the South and to the North on Mount Bondone.
Mount Stivo (Trentino Alto Adige, Italy). Th ese are ceramic and siliceous fi nds from three diff erent areas,
here defi ned as zones A, B and C. Zones B and C gave two fl int arrowheads, presumably ascribable to
Copper Age (zone C) and Early Bronze Age (zone B). Th ese artefacts suggest an occasional use of the
area, probably for hunting and/or pastoral purposes. Th e situation is diff erent for zone A, in a location
called Becchetta (Ronzo-Chienis). Here the fi nds are more numerous and indicate the presence of an
archaeological site datable, according to the ceramic typology, at the beginning of the Iron Age (IX-
VIII century BC). Th e high altitude, the terrain roughness and the particular geomorphology of the
area, suggest the presence of an ancient place of worship that could fi nd comparisons in the so-called
Brandopferplatz, considering also the presence of calcined bones referable to domestic fauna.
This article reports two recent occasional finds on the northern side of the Baldo mountain range. A bronze socketed chisel, found in the Natural Reserve of Corna Piana (Brentonico, TN), dating from the ninth to the eighth century B.C., and a bronze knife with ring ended openwork handle near Malga Artilone (Avio, TN), dating from the twelfth to the eleventh century B.C. Both fi ndings document the use of high altitudes between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, and could be associated with cultual contexts Brandopferplatz, Höhenfunde or Passfunde).
This paper presents a comprehensive overview of all archaeological discoveries in prehistoric times, documented in the last two centuries in the municipalities included in the catchment area of the Leno torrent: Terragnolo, Vallarsa, Trambileno and, partially, Rovereto. Chronologically, we start from the end of the Upper Paleolithic to arrive at the second Iron Age. We take this opportunity to publish several new discoveries that shed light on a territory that has received little investigation until now. Of particular notice some bronze artifacts found in Vallarsa and dating back to the early Iron Age: two axes found in val Foxi and a boat-shaped brooch with an engraved decoration on the bow found in Albaredo.