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United States strike wave of 1919

The United States strike wave of 1919 was a succession of extensive labor strikes following World War I that unfolded across various American industries, involving more than four million American workers.[1][2][3] This significant post-war labor mobilization marked a critical juncture in the nation's industrial landscape, with widespread strikes reflecting the heightened socioeconomic tensions and the burgeoning demand for improved working conditions and fair labor practices.[3][2][4]

Mass meeting of Cleveland steel workers in Brookside Park during strike, October 1, 1919

Background

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During World War I, the period witnessed a notable increase in strike activity, with the average number of workers participating in strikes each year from 1916 to 1918 being 2.4 times higher than in 1915.[5]: 111  This upsurge laid the groundwork for the subsequent strike wave of 1919, as workers began to grasp the influence they could exert over production through collective actions.[5]: 111  The economic backdrop further fueled discontent, with the cost of living in the United States nearly doubling from August 1915 to August 1919.[5]: 111 

The aftermath of the war also introduced a complex sociopolitical environment. The success of the 1917 Russian Revolution found resonance among certain radical factions within U.S. unions. Concurrently, concerns among business and government leaders intensified, driven by a perception that existing industrial relations faced a unified challenge from what they regarded as a 'Bolshevist' conspiracy.[6]: 112  The 1919 Seattle General Strike, partly inspired by the Russian Revolution, served as a manifestation of these tensions, contributing to the overall atmosphere of unrest.[7]

The strikes

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After the war, following the end of wartime price controls and laxing of government regulation against union busting, the cost of living rose significantly. This led to anger among workers and subsequently large strikes.[2]: 112–113 

Some notable strikes in 1919 include:

Reactions

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See also: American Plan (union negotiations)

There was both support and opposition to numerous strikes across the country, resulting in various state and federal responses. In the midst of the Seattle strikes, Mayor Ole Hanson called upon Secretary of War Newton Baker to deploy federal troops to threaten strikers to return to work.[17] Additional federal actions were taken by President Woodrow Wilson and his administration, empowered by Congress passing the Lever Act in 1917, granting the president the authority to manage food and fuel distribution.[18] This allowed the president and his administration to engage directly with many large unions nationwide, aiming to prevent strikes and imposing fines, such as the United States Fuel Administration penalizing striking coal miners in Indiana with a $1 fine.[18]

Worker divisions were widespread, with native and immigrant workers often at odds as employers utilized propaganda to exploit racial tensions among some white native workers.[17] Riots erupted in several cities, including the Cleveland May Day Riot, where tensions escalated due to a series of strikes leading to conflicts between unionists and leftists, as well as anti-communist and anti-unionist residents.[19]

Conclusion and aftermath

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Number of workers involved in US strikes each year according to the U.S. BLS, 1919 strike wave in purple

The results of the strikes were varied:

  • The UMW coal strike was a success, winning a 14% wage increase.[20]
  • The steel strike was a crushing defeat without winning their demands and causing almost no union organizing to occur in the sector for the next 15 years.[21]
  • The New England telephone strike was a victory, winning wage increases.[15][13]

In broad trends, the number of strikes began to decline from their peak in 1919 as the United States war economy transitioned. The labor market tightened with the return of veterans, the resumption of immigration, economic contraction leading to two separate recessions, and rising prices.[22] These factors contributed to diminishing bargaining power for many workers, given the tightening job markets. The federal government, no longer protecting unions, dismantled its wartime labor agencies, enabling companies to resume union-busting efforts.[23][22] The strike wave struggled to sustain continual growth and concessions due to state and federal governments actively suppressing strikes, both through military intervention and by invoking the fear of Bolshevism following the Russian Revolution.[24] This overall wave of strikes has been speculated to have played a role in the emergence and intensity of the First Red Scare.

 
'American Plan' open shop logo

World War I had also dramatically shifted the economic and political position of the United States on the international stage. Becoming the wealthiest country at the time and in turn dramatically shifting the position of US business owners; giving them more power in shaping industries and loaning foreign capital.[25] As such following the end of the war, an 'attack' on organized labor began with increased anti-union and open shop efforts, coming to prominence in 1920.[26][25][27] This significantly decreased the negotiating power of labor unions following the end of the war.[25]

Following the onset of the Great Migration, significant amounts of African Americans migrated to the industrial north. In some cities, they were hired as strikebreakers, especially during the strikes of 1917 and 1919 as it was one of the few ways for them to secure jobs.[28] This development triggered new racial tensions, largely instigated by white workers.[22] The Red Summer also occurred in 1919, a set of white supremacist terrorism, and racially motivated attacks against Black Americans within the US.[29]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "Pandemics Can Mean Strike Waves". jacobin.com. Retrieved 2023-07-28.
  2. ^ a b c d e Brecher, Jeremy (2020). "Chapter 4: Nineteen Nineteen". Strike!. Internet Archive. Oakland : PM Press. pp. 109–148. ISBN 978-1-62963-808-9.
  3. ^ a b McCartin, Joseph Anthony (1997). Labor's great war: the struggle for industrial democracy and the origins of modern American labor relations, 1912 - 1921. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press. pp. 202–205. ISBN 978-0-8078-4679-7.
  4. ^ Dubofsky, Melvyn (1995). "Labor Unrest in the United States, 1906-90". Review (Fernand Braudel Center). 18 (1): 125–135. ISSN 0147-9032. JSTOR 40241326.
  5. ^ a b c Brecher, Jeremy (2020). "Chapter 4: Nineteen Nineteen". Strike!. Internet Archive. Oakland : PM Press. pp. 109–148. ISBN 978-1-62963-808-9.
  6. ^ Brecher, Jeremy (2020). "Chapter 4: Nineteen Nineteen". Strike!. Internet Archive. Oakland : PM Press. pp. 109–148. ISBN 978-1-62963-808-9.
  7. ^ Murray, Robert K. (1955). Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920. U of Minnesota Press. p. 58. ISBN 9780816658336.
  8. ^ "STRIKE TIES UP PORT; 100,000 IDLE; Tons of Food Lying on Piers, and Government Takes Charge of Freight Shipments. STRUGGLE WITHIN THE UNION Longshoremen's Officers Regain Measure of Control; Allege I.W.W. Influence. Yield to Union Leaders' Persuasion. STRIKE TIES UP PORT; 100,000 IDLE Quit Work by the Thousands. Plead for "One Big Union." Accuse Radicals In Strike". The New York Times. 1919-10-10. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  9. ^ "Harbor Men Begin 'War' By Big Riot In Brooklyn" (PDF). New York Tribune. October 28, 1919.
  10. ^ "GARMENT WORKERS ORDERED TO STRIKE; Union Calls Upon 35,000 Members to Quit Their Employmentat 10 o'Clock This Morning. APPEAL FOR GOOD ORDER Right to Discharge at Issue--Demande Include 44-Hour Weekand Advance in Wages. (Published 1919)". The New York Times. 1919-01-21. Retrieved 2023-07-28.
  11. ^ "June 18, 1919: Whole State Suffering From Telephone Strike". San Diego Union-Tribune. 2018-06-18. Retrieved 2023-07-29.
  12. ^ "Chapter 23: The 1919 Telephone Strike". ibew1245.com. Retrieved 2023-07-29.
  13. ^ a b "TELEPHONE STRIKE WON BY WORKERS; Settlement Is Announced and Service Will Be Resumed in New England Today. GIRLS GET INCREASED PAY Maximum Wage to be $19 a Week--Men Employes Also Receive an Advance. TELEPHONE STRIKE WON BY WORKERS Ends Rhode Island Strike. (Published 1919)". The New York Times. 1919-04-21. Retrieved 2023-07-29.
  14. ^ "TELEPHONE STRIKE TIES UP 5 STATES; Girl Operators in New England Walk Out, Refusing Postmaster General's Offer.GOMPERS ADVISES CAUTIONTumulty Urges Strikers to Submit Their Case After Governors Appeal to Wilson. Governors Appeal to President. TELEPHONE STRIKE TIES UP FIVE STATES Ffforts to Restore Service. (Published 1919)". The New York Times. 1919-04-16. Retrieved 2023-07-29.
  15. ^ a b "Telephone Operators Strike". www.massmoments.org. Retrieved 2023-07-29.
  16. ^ Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States Volume 8: Postwar Struggles 1918–1920 New York: International Publishers Co., 1988. p. 88–92
  17. ^ a b Brecher, Jeremy (2020). "Chapter 4: Nineteen Nineteen". Strike!. Internet Archive. Oakland : PM Press. pp. 109–148. ISBN 978-1-62963-808-9.
  18. ^ a b Marcus, Dr. Irwin M.; Mountjoy, Eileen; O'Leary, Beth (2019). "The coal strike of 1919 in Indiana County and its aftermath". Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved November 2, 2019.
  19. ^ Ferraton, Matthew. "May Day Riot". Cleveland Historical.
  20. ^ Marcus, Dr. Irwin M.; Mountjoy, Eileen; O'Leary, Beth (2019). "The coal strike of 1919 in Indiana County and its aftermath". Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved November 2, 2019.
  21. ^ Brody, 1960, pp. 277–278; Dubofsky and Dulles, p. 258.
  22. ^ a b c Brecher, Jeremy (2020). "Chapter 4: Nineteen Nineteen". Strike!. Internet Archive. Oakland : PM Press. pp. 109–148. ISBN 978-1-62963-808-9.
  23. ^ Asher, Robert (1978). "Painful Memories: The Historical Consciousness of Steelworkers and the Steel Strike of 1919". Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies. 45 (1): 61–86. JSTOR 27772497 – via JSTOR.
  24. ^ Brecher, Jeremy (2020). "Chapter 4: Nineteen Nineteen". Strike!. Internet Archive. Oakland : PM Press. pp. 109–148. ISBN 978-1-62963-808-9.
  25. ^ a b c Dunn, Robert W.; Nearing, Scott (1927). The Americanization of labor. The employers' offensive against the trade unions. With an introd. by S. Nearing. Prelinger Library. New York: International Publishers.
  26. ^ Business Men Plan War on Reds. Vol. 66. Internet Archive. The Iron Trade Review. February 11, 1920.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  27. ^ Foundries Declare for Open Shop. Vol. 68. Internet Archive. The Iron Trade Review. April 28, 1921.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  28. ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 279, 281–282.
  29. ^ Whitaker, Robert (June 23, 2009). On the Laps of Gods: The Red Summer of 1919 and the Struggle for Justice That Remade a Nation. Crown. ISBN 978-0307339836.
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