[go: up one dir, main page]
Wikipedia

Minoan eruption

The Minoan eruption was a catastrophic volcanic eruption that devastated the Aegean island of Thera (also called Santorini) circa 1600 BCE.[2][3] It destroyed the Minoan settlement at Akrotiri, as well as communities and agricultural areas on nearby islands and the coast of Crete with subsequent earthquakes and paleotsunamis.[4] With a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 7, it resulted in the ejection of approximately 28–41 km3 (6.7–9.8 cu mi) of dense-rock equivalent (DRE),[5][1] the eruption was one of the largest volcanic events in human history.[6][7][8] Since tephra from the Minoan eruption serves as a marker horizon in nearly all archaeological sites in the Eastern Mediterranean,[9] its precise date is of high importance and has been fiercely debated among archaeologists and volcanologists for decades,[10][11] without coming to a definite conclusion.

Minoan eruption of Thera
Satellite image of Thera, November 21, 2000. The bay in the center of the island is the caldera created by the Minoan eruption.
VolcanoThera
Datec. 1600 BCE (see below)
TypeUltra Plinian
LocationSantorini, Cyclades, Aegean Sea
36°24′36″N 25°24′00″E / 36.41000°N 25.40000°E / 36.41000; 25.40000
VEI7[1]
ImpactDevastated the Minoan settlements of Akrotiri, the island of Thera, communities and agricultural areas on nearby islands, and the coast of Crete with related earthquakes and tsunamis.
Thera is located in Greece
Thera
Thera

Although there are no clear ancient records of the eruption, its plume and volcanic lightning may have been described in the Egyptian Tempest Stele.[12] The Chinese Bamboo Annals reported unusual yellow skies and summer frost at the beginning of the Shang dynasty, which may have been a consequence of volcanic winter (similar to 1816, the Year Without a Summer, after the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora).[13]

Eruption

edit
 
Volcanic craters on Santorini, June 2001

Background

edit
Main article: Santorini caldera

Geological evidence shows the Thera volcano erupted numerous times over several hundred thousand years before the Minoan eruption. In a repeating process, the volcano would violently erupt, then eventually collapse into a roughly circular seawater-filled caldera, with numerous small islands forming the circle. The caldera would slowly refill with magma, building a new volcano, which erupted and then collapsed in an ongoing cyclical process.[14]

Immediately before the Minoan eruption, the walls of the caldera formed a nearly continuous ring of islands, with the only entrance between Thera and the tiny island of Aspronisi.[14] This cataclysmic eruption was centered on a small island just north of the existing island of Nea Kameni in the centre of the then-existing caldera. The northern part of the caldera was refilled by the volcanic ash and lava, then collapsed again.

Magnitude

edit

The magnitude of the eruption, particularly the submarine pyroclastic flows, has been difficult to estimate because the majority of the erupted products were deposited in the sea. Together, these challenges result in considerable uncertainty regarding the volume of the Minoan eruption, with estimates ranging between 13–86 km3 (3.1–20.6 cu mi) DRE.[15][16]

According to the latest analysis of marine sediments and seismic data gathered during ocean research expeditions from 2015 to 2019, the estimated volume of the material expelled during the volcanic eruption ranges from 28–41 km3 (6.7–9.8 cu mi) DRE.[1]

The study revealed that the initial Plinian eruption was the most voluminous phase, ejecting 14–21 km3 (3.4–5.0 cu mi) magma and accounting for half of total erupted materials. This was followed by 3–4 km3 (0.72–0.96 cu mi) DRE co-ignimbrite fall, 5–9 km3 (1.2–2.2 cu mi) DRE pyroclastic flows and 5–7 km3 (1.2–1.7 cu mi) DRE intra-caldera deposits.[1]

This eruption is comparable with the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, 1257 Samalas eruption, Lake Taupo's Hatepe eruption around 230 CE, and the 946 eruption of Paektu Mountain, which are among the largest eruptions during the Common Era.[6][7]

Sequence

edit

On Santorini, there is a 60 m (200 ft) thick layer of white tephra that overlies the soil clearly delineating the ground level before the eruption. This layer has three distinct bands that indicate the different phases of the eruption.[17] Studies have identified four major eruption phases, and one minor precursory tephra fall. The thinness of the first ash layer, along with the lack of noticeable erosion of that layer by winter rains before the next layer was deposited, indicate that the volcano gave the local population a few months' warning. Since no human remains have been found at the Akrotiri site, this preliminary volcanic activity probably caused the island's population to flee. It is also suggested that several months before the eruption, Santorini experienced one or more earthquakes, which damaged the local settlements.[18][19][20]

 
Early phase of Late-Bronze-Age volcano eruption (~ 1500 BC), southern border of the Caldera island. The lower layer of pumice is finer, almost white and without rock intrusions.

Intense magmatic activity of the first major phase (BO1/Minoan A)[21] of the eruption deposited up to 7 m (23 ft) of pumice and ash, with a minor lithic component, southeast and east. Archaeological evidence indicated burial of man-made structures with limited damage. The second (BO2/Minoan B) and third (BO3/Minoan C) eruption phases involved pyroclastic surges and lava fountaining, as well as the possible generation of tsunamis. Man-made structures not buried during Minoan A were completely destroyed. The third phase was also characterized by the initiation of caldera collapse. The fourth, and last, major phase (BO4/Minoan D) was marked by varied activity: lithic-rich base surge deposits, lava flows, lahar floods, and co-ignimbrite ash-fall deposits. This phase was characterized by the completion of caldera collapse, which produced megatsunamis.[21][22]

Geomorphology

edit
 
Mansions and hotels atop steep cliffs.

Although the fracturing process is not yet known, the altitudinal statistical analysis indicates that the caldera had formed just before the eruption. The area of the island was smaller, and the southern and eastern coastlines appeared regressed. During the eruption, the landscape was covered by the pumice sediments. In some places, the coastline vanished under thick tuff depositions. In others, recent coastlines were extended towards the sea. After the eruption, the geomorphology of the island was characterized by an intense erosional phase during which the pumice was progressively removed from the higher altitudes to the lower ones.[23]

Volcanology

edit

The eruption was of the Ultra Plinian type, and it resulted in an estimated 30 to 35 km (19 to 22 mi) high eruption column which reached the stratosphere. In addition, the magma underlying the volcano came into contact with the shallow marine embayment, resulting in violent phreatomagmatic blasts.

The eruption also generated 35 to 150 m (115 to 492 ft) high tsunamis that devastated the northern coastline of Crete, 110 km (68 mi) away. The tsunami affected coastal towns such as Amnisos, where building walls were knocked out of alignment. On the island of Anafi, 27 km (17 mi) to the east, ash layers 3 m (10 ft) deep have been found, as well as pumice layers on slopes 250 m (820 ft) above sea level.

Elsewhere in the Mediterranean are pumice deposits that could have been sent by the Thera eruption. Ash layers in cores drilled from the seabed and from lakes in Turkey show that the heaviest ashfall was towards the east and northeast of Santorini. The ash found on Crete is now known to have been from a precursory phase of the eruption, some weeks or months before the main eruptive phases, and it would have had little impact on the island.[24] Santorini ash deposits were at one time claimed to have been found in the Nile Delta,[25] but this is now known to be a misidentification.[26][27]

Eruption dating

edit

The Minoan eruption is an important marker horizon for the Bronze Age chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean realm. It provides a fixed point for aligning the entire chronology of the second millennium BCE in the Aegean, as evidence of the eruption is found throughout the region. Yet, archaeological dating based on typological sequencing and the Egyptian chronology is significantly younger than the radiocarbon age of the Minoan eruption, by roughly a century. This age discrepancy has resulted in a fierce debate about whether there is an upheaval in the archaeological synchronization between the Aegean and Egypt.[28]

Archaeology

edit

Archaeologists developed the Late Bronze Age chronologies of eastern Mediterranean cultures by analyzing design styles of artifacts found in each archaeological layer.[29] If the type of artifacts can be accurately assigned, then the layer's position in a chronological order can be determined. This is known as sequence dating or seriation. In Aegean chronology, however, the frequent exchange of objects and styles enables relative chronology to be compared with the absolute chronology of Egypt, so absolute dates could be determined in the Aegean.

Since the Minoan eruption has been conclusively placed in late/end Late Minoan IA (LM-IA) in the Crete chronology, late/end Late Helladic I (LH-I) in the mainland chronology,[30][31][32] the contention concerns which Egyptian period was contemporaneous with LM-IA and LM-IB. Decades of intensive archaeological work and seriation on Crete in the last century had confidently correlated the late LM-IA with Dynasty XVIII in Egypt and the end of LM-IA at the start of Thutmose III.[31] Stone vessels discovered in the Shaft Graves in LH-I are also of the New Kingdom type. Multiple archaeological sites of Theran pumice workshop used by the local inhabitants are only found in the New Kingdom strata. A milk bowl on Santorini used before the volcanic eruption has a New Kingdom pottery style.[28] An Egyptian inscription on the Ahmose Tempest Stele recorded an extraordinary cataclysm resembling the Minoan eruption.[33] Taken together, the archaeological evidence points to an eruption date after the accession of Ahmose I. The year of accession based on the conventional Egyptian chronology and radiocarbon-based chronology is either 1550 BCE[34] and 1570–1544 BCE (IntCal04)[35] or 1569–1548 BCE (IntCal20).[36] The archaeological evidence argues for a Theran eruption date between circa 1550 and 1480 BCE.[37]

Proponents of an earlier date argue that Aegean-Egyptian pottery correlation allows considerable flexibility. Several other archaeological interpretations of LM-IA and LM-IB pottery differ from the "traditional" and could be consistent with a much earlier beginning time for LM-IA and LM-IB.[38][39][40] Pottery synchronisms were also assessed to be less secure before the LM-IIIAI/Amenhotep III period.[41] Pumice in workshop and the inscription on the Tempest Stele have been argued to only reflect the lower bound of the eruption age. The date of the production of pottery with the Santorini milk bowl style in other regions has not been determined and could pre-date the Minoan eruption. The chronology of stone vessel styles during this critical period is lacking.[42][43]

Radiocarbon age

edit

Raw radiocarbon dates are not accurate calendar years of the event and this has to do with the fact that the level of atmospheric radiocarbon fluctuates. Raw radiocarbon ages can be converted to calendar dates by means of calibration curves which are periodically updated by international researchers. Derived calibrated calendar date ranges are highly dependent on how accurately the calibration curve represents radiocarbon levels for the time period. As of 2022, the most updated calibration curve is IntCal20.[44] Early radiocarbon dates in the 1970s with calibration were already showing massive age disagreement and were initially discarded as unreliable by the archaeological community.[39] In the following decades, the range of possible eruption dates narrowed significantly with improved calibration, analytical precision, statistical methods, and sample treatment. Radiocarbon dating has built a strong case for an eruption date in the late 17th century BCE. The table below summarizes the history and results of radiocarbon dating of volcanic destruction layer with pre-2018 calibration curves:

List of radiocarbon dates with calibration curve published before 2018
Source Calibrated date (95% CI) Calibration used Sample context and statistical method
Hammer et al., 1987[45] 1675–1525 BCE Pearson and Stuiver, 1986[46] Weighted average of 13 samples from volcanic destruction layer at Akrotiri (VDL)
Ramsey et al., 2004[47] 1663–1599 BCE INTCAL98[48] Bayesian model of sequence of samples from before, during and after eruption
Manning et al., 2006[49] 1683–1611 BCE IntCal04[50] Bayesian model of sequence of samples from before, during and after eruption
Friedrich et al., 2006[51] 1627–1600 BCE IntCal04[50] Wiggle-matching of olive tree buried alive in pumice layer
Manning et al., 2010[52] 1660–1611 BCE IntCal09[53] Bayesian model of sequence of samples from before, during and after eruption
Höflmayer et al., 2012[42] 1660–1602 BCE

1630–1600 BCE (2)

IntCal09[53] Tau boundary function on 28 samples from VDL

Wiggle-matching of olive tree buried alive in VDL (2)

Pearson et al., 2018[54] 1664–1614 BCE

1646–1606 BCE (2)

1626–1605 BCE (3)

IntCal13[55] Weighted average of 28 samples from VDL

Tau boundary function on the 28 samples from VDL (2)

Wiggle-matching of olive tree buried alive in pumice layer (3)

In 2018, a team led by tree ring scientist reported a possible offset of a few decades in the previous IntCal calibration curves during the period 1660–1540 BCE. The resulting new calibration curve allowed previous raw radiocarbon dates to be calibrated to encompass a substantial part of the 16th century BCE, making it possible for radiocarbon dates to be compatible with archaeological evidence.[54] The measured offset was then confirmed by other laboratories across the world and incorporated into the most updated calibration curve IntCal20.[56][57][58] In the same year, study of bomb peak further questioned the validity of wiggle-matching of the olive branch because the radiocarbon dates of the outermost branch layer could differ by up to a few decades caused by growth cessation, then the olive branch could also pre-date Thera by decades.[59]

In 2020, speculation of regional offset specific to Mediterranean context in all calibration curves was reported based on measurements made on juniper wood at Gordion. If the regional offset is genuine, then calibration based on the regional dataset, Hd GOR, would place the eruption date back to 17th century BCE.[60] Others have argued that these site-specific offsets are already incorporated into the IntCal20 prediction interval since it is constructed from a much wider range of locations and any locational variation is of similar magnitude to the inter-laboratory variation.[61][62]

While the refined calibration curve IntCal20 does not rule out a 17th-century BCE eruption date, it does shift the probable range of the eruption date to include the majority of 16th century BCE, offering a way to at least mitigate the long-standing age disagreement. However, the exact year of eruption has not been settled. The table below summarizes the dating results:

List of volcanic destruction layer (VDL) radiocarbon dates with calibration curve published after 2018
Source Calibrated date (posterior probability) Calibration used Sample context and statistical method
Manning et al., 2020[60] 1663–1612 BCE (87.5%) Hd GOR[36] Bayesian model of sequence of samples from before, during and after eruption
Manning et al., 2020[36] 1619–1596 BCE (64.7%)

1576–1545 BCE (22.9%)

IntCal20[44] Bayesian model of sequence of samples from before, during and after eruption
Şahoğlu et al., 2022[63] 1612–1573 BCE (19.4%)

1565–1501 BCE (76.1%)

IntCal20[44] The youngest sample near victims from Theran tsunami layer at Çeşme
Ehrlich et al., 2021[64] 1624–1528 BCE IntCal20[44] Eight scenarios of olive wood growth to account for possible growth cessation
Manning, 2022[65] 1609–1560 BCE (95.4%) IntCal20[44] Bayesian model of sequence of samples from before, during and after eruption but more comprehensive to include samples from VDL, tsunami and distal fallout from across southern Aegean region
Pearson et al., 2023[66] 1610–1510 BCE (95.4%)

1602–1502 BCE (95.4%)

IntCal20[44] Therasia olive shrub

Ice cores, tree rings and speleothems

edit

An eruption of Theran magnitude is expected to leave a detectable signal in various environmental records like ice core and tree ring. Petrologic constraints on Minoan magma yields a range of 0.3–35.9 trillion grams of sulfur release. The higher end of the estimate could cause severe climatic change and leave detectable signals in ice cores and tree rings.[67] Notably, tree ring dating allows extremely precise dating to the exact calendar year of each ring with virtually no age uncertainty, and from properties of the annual tree rings local climate record could be reconstructed down to sub-annual precision.

In 1987, a major Greenland sulfate spike in 1644 ± 20 BCE in ice core chronology was hypothesized to be caused by the Minoan eruption based on the early radiocarbon results of Hammer et al.[45] In 1988, a major environmental disruption and extreme global-cooling/frost-ring in 1627 ± 0 BCE were also revealed through precisely dated frost ring and too were hypothesized to be related to Minoan eruption.[68][69][70]

Archaeologists who preferred a late 16th century BCE eruption date were neither convinced by the 1644 ± 20 BCE sulfate spike nor by the 1627 BCE frost ring, because evidence of causality between the two events and Minoan eruption was absent.[31]

Since 2003, multiple independent studies of major elements and trace elements of volcanic ash retrieved from the 1644 ± 20 BCE sulfate layer failed to match the ash to that of Santorini[24] but all attributed the ash to another large eruption during this period, Mount Aniakchak, thus ruling out Minoan eruption as the cause of the sulfate spike.[71][72][73][74] In 2019, a revision of the Greenland ice-core chronology was proposed based on synchronization of the frost-ring data and the major sulfate spike, and the revised date for the Aniakchak eruption was shifted to 1628 BCE.[75] The Greenland ice core chronology offset was independently confirmed by other teams[74][76] and adopted into Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2021 (GICC21).[77] The 1627 BCE extreme global cooling was then conveniently explained by the major Aniakchak eruption without invoking Thera. An eruption date of 1627 BCE is also no longer supported by radiocarbon evidence with the most recent calibration curve IntCal20.[74]

In light of much younger radiocarbon dates and revised ice core chronology, several possible ice core and tree ring signals in the 17th and 16th century BCE have been proposed.[74][78][79] The list below summarizes the tree ring and ice core signals that may have been caused by the Minoan eruption:

List of proposed Minoan eruption dates suggested by environmental anomalies
Date Environmental context Records Ref
1681–1673 BCE Tree ring increases of sulfur, calcium, and rare earth elements in Mediterranean tree ring 857, possibly caused by volcanic eruption in this region [80][81]
1654 BCE Ice core and tree ring one of largest sulfate spikes recorded in Greenland in the last 4,000 years, estimated 50 trillion grams of sulfur; frost-damaged ring in 1653 BCE followed by ring-width minima in 1652 BCE [74][79]
1649 BCE Tree ring ring-width minima [79]
1619 BCE Tree ring narrow ring [79]
1611 BCE Ice core sulfate spike, estimated 2–8 trillion grams of sulfur [74]
1597 BCE Tree ring ring-width minima [79]
1561 BCE Ice core and tree ring large sulfate spike, estimated 22 trillion grams of sulfur; ring growth reduced in 1560 BCE; calcium depletion in Mediterranean tree ring in 1560 BCE possibly caused by volcanic eruption in this region [74][54]
1558 BCE Ice core sulfate spike, estimated 10 trillion grams of sulfur [74]
1555 BCE Ice core and tree ring sulfate spike, estimated 6 trillion grams of sulfur; reduced ring growth in 1554 BCE [74]
1546 BCE Tree ring reduced tree ring growth [54]
1544 BCE Tree ring ring-width minima [54]
1539 BCE Ice core sulfate spike, estimated 6 trillion grams of sulfur [74]
1524 BCE Tree ring ring-width minima [79]

The date of Minoan eruption does not necessarily have to be in one of the years listed in the table, because the eruption may not have been environmentally impactful enough to leave any detectable signal.[65]

In addition, a stalagmite from Turkey shows bromine peaks at 1621 ± 25 BCE, molybdenum at 1617 ± 25 BCE and sulfur at 1589 ± 25 BCE. The authors interpreted that all three peaks were caused by a single volcanic eruption in the Mediterranean region and the time difference was related to differences in their retention rates.[82] Others have suggested that the sulfur peak may have been related to the 1561 BCE chemical anomaly recorded in Mediterranean tree rings.[54]

Historical impact

edit

Akrotiri

edit
 
Excavation of Akrotiri on Thera

The eruption devastated the settlement at Akrotiri on Santorini, which was entombed in a layer of pumice and ash. Evidence at the site suggests that survivors returned and attempted to recover their possessions and perhaps to bury victims.[83]

Minoan Crete

edit
 
A Marine Style vase, typical of the Late Minoan IB period that followed the eruption of Thera.

The eruption was felt at Minoan sites on Crete. In northeastern Crete, earthquakes destroyed sites including Petras, while 9 meter high tsunamis swept over coastal sites such as Palaikastro.[84] Ash and pumice fell across the island, where it was sometimes collected and stored.[84][85][86]

After the eruption, the Minoans quickly recovered, and the subsequent period is considered the zenith of Minoan culture.[87][88][89] Many affected sites were rebuilt, including Petras and Palaikastro, at the latter of which, new buildings were constructed using high quality ashlar masonry. New Minoan palaces were constructed at Zakros and Phaistos.[90][86] However, other sites fell into decline, including Galatas and Kommos.[89][84][91]

The longer term impact of the eruption remains a matter of debate. The immediate aftermath saw a number of puzzling cultural changes including the filling in of lustral basins.[89] In their book The Troubled Island, Driessen and MacDonald argued that the richness of the post-eruption material culture masked deep economic and political problems that eventually led to the collapse of Neopalatial society. Subsequent evidence suggests that this was not a general pattern across the island.[92][93]

Chinese records

edit

A volcanic winter from an eruption in the late 17th century BCE has been claimed by some researchers to correlate with entries in later Chinese records documenting the collapse of the semi-legendary Xia dynasty in China. According to the Bamboo Annals, the collapse of the dynasty and the rise of the Shang dynasty, approximately dated to 1618 BCE, were accompanied by "yellow fog, a dim sun, then three suns, frost in July, famine, and the withering of all five cereals".[13]

Effect on Egyptian history

edit
Further information: Ahmose I § Dates and length of reign

Apocalyptic rainstorms, which devastated much of Egypt, and were described on the Tempest Stele of Ahmose I, have been attributed to short-term climatic changes caused by the Theran eruption.[94][95][96] The dates and regnal dates of Ahmose I are in some dispute with Egyptologists (leaving aside alternate chronologies). Proposed reigns range from 1570 to 1546 BCE to 1539–1514 BCE. A radiocarbon dating of his mummy produced a mean value of 1557 BCE. In any case this would only provide an overlap with the later estimates of eruption date.[97]

Alternatively, if the eruption occurred in the Second Intermediate Period, the absence of Egyptian records of the eruption could be caused by the general disorder in Egypt around that time.

While it has been argued that the damage attributed to these storms may have been caused by an earthquake following the Thera eruption, it has also been suggested that it was caused during a war with the Hyksos, and the storm reference is merely a metaphor for chaos upon which the Pharaoh was attempting to impose order.[98] Documents such as Hatshepsut's Speos Artemidos depict storms, but are clearly figurative, not literal. Research indicates that the Speos Artemidos stele is a reference to her overcoming the powers of chaos and darkness.[98]

Greek traditions

edit
See also: Deucalion § Dating by early scholars

The Titanomachy

edit

The eruption of Thera and volcanic fallout may have inspired the myths of the Titanomachy in Hesiod's Theogony.[99] The Titanomachy could have picked up elements of western Anatolian folk memory, as the tale spread westward. Hesiod's lines have been compared with volcanic activity, citing Zeus's thunderbolts as volcanic lightning, the boiling earth and sea as a breach of the magma chamber, immense flame and heat as evidence of phreatic explosions, among many other descriptions.[100]

Atlantis

edit
Main article: Location hypotheses of Atlantis

Spyridon Marinatos, the discoverer of the Akrotiri archaeological site, suggested that the Minoan eruption is reflected in Plato's story of Atlantis. This view remains prevalent in popular culture, as reflected in TV programs such as BBC's Atlantis. However, this view is not supported by current scholarship.[101][102][103][104][105]

The Exodus

edit

Geologist Barbara J. Sivertsen seeks to establish a link between the eruption of Santorini (c. 1600 BCE) and the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt in the Bible.[20]

Bicameral mentality

edit

In the controversial bicameral mentality hypothesis, Julian Jaynes has argued that the Minoan eruption was a crucial event in the development of human consciousness since the displacements that it caused led to new and important interactions among communities.[106]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ a b c d Karstens, Jens; Preine, Jonas; Crutchley, Gareth J.; Kutterolf, Steffen; van der Bilt, Willem G. M.; Hooft, Emilie E. E.; Druitt, Timothy H.; Schmid, Florian; Cederstrøm, Jan Magne; Hübscher, Christian; Nomikou, Paraskevi; Carey, Steven; Kühn, Michel; Elger, Judith; Berndt, Christian (2023-04-29). "Revised Minoan eruption volume as benchmark for large volcanic eruptions". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 2497. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14.2497K. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-38176-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 10148807. PMID 37120623.
  2. ^ Hardy DA (1989). "Therea and the Aegean World III", Volume III—Chronology (Proceedings of the Third International Congress, Hardy DA, editor). Retrieved 2008-03-16.
  3. ^ Paris, Raphael, et al., (2022). "A Minoan and a Neolithic tsunami recorded in coastal sediments of Ios Island, Aegean Sea, Greece", in: Marine Geology, Volume 452, October 2022, Abstract: "...tsunami deposits on the coasts of Ios Island, Aegean Sea, Greece...marine sediments and pumices from the ~1600 BCE Minoan eruption of Santorini volcano. This is the first evidence of the Minoan tsunami in the Cycladic Islands North of Santorini."
  4. ^ Antonopoulos, J. (1992). "The great Minoan eruption of Thera volcano and the ensuing tsunami in the Greek Archipelago". Natural Hazards. 5 (2): 153–68. Bibcode:1992NatHa...5..153A. doi:10.1007/BF00127003. S2CID 129836887.
  5. ^ Karstens, J.; Preine, J.; Crutchley, G.J.; Kutterolf, S.; van der Bilt, W.; Hooft, E.; Druitt, T.H.; Schmid, F.; Cederstrøm, J.M.; Hübscher, C.; Nomikou, P.; Carey, S.; Kühn, M.; Elger, J.; Berndt, C. (2022). "Revising the volume of the Minoan eruption (Santorini) based on new marine geophysical and sedimentological data" (PDF). 11th Conference Cities on Volcanoes (COV11).
  6. ^ a b Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815". Progress in Physical Geography. 27 (2): 230–59. Bibcode:2003PrPG...27..230O. doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra. S2CID 131663534.
  7. ^ a b McCoy, FW, & Dunn, SE (2002). "Modelling the Climatic Effects of the LBA Eruption of Thera: New Calculations of Tephra Volumes May Suggest a Significantly Larger Eruption than Previously Reported" (PDF). Chapman Conference on Volcanism and the Earth's Atmosphere. Thera, Greece: American Geographical Union. Retrieved 2007-05-29.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Sigurdsson H, Carey, S, Alexandri M, Vougioukalakis G, Croff K, Roman C, Sakellariou D, Anagnostou C, Rousakis G, Ioakim C, Gogou A, Ballas D, Misaridis T, & Nomikou P (2006). "Marine Investigations of Greece's Santorini Volcanic Field". Eos. 87 (34): 337–48. Bibcode:2006EOSTr..87..337S. doi:10.1029/2006EO340001.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Friedrich, Walter L. (2013). "The Minoan Eruption of Santorini around 1613 B. C. and its consequences" (PDF). Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle. 9: 37–48. ISSN 1867-4402.
  10. ^ Aitken, M. J. (1988). "The Thera Eruption: Continuing Discussion of the Dating". archaeometry. 30 (1): 165–182. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1988.tb00444.x.
  11. ^ Kutschera, Walter (2020). "On the enigma of dating the Minoan eruption of Santorini". PNAS. 117 (16): 8677–8679. Bibcode:2020PNAS..117.8677K. doi:10.1073/pnas.2004243117. PMC 7183194. PMID 32291333.
  12. ^ Foster, Karen Polinger; et al. (1996). "Texts, Storms, and the Thera Eruption". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 55 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1086/373781. S2CID 162024484.
  13. ^ a b Pang, K. D.; et al. (1989). "Climatic and Hydrologic Extremes in Early Chinese History: Possible Causes and Dates". Eos. 70: 1095.
  14. ^ a b Friedrich, WL (1999). Fire in the Sea, the Santorini Volcano: Natural History and the Legend of Atlantis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65290-1.
  15. ^ Watkins, N. D.; Sparks, R. S. J.; Sigurdsson, H.; Huang, T. C.; Federman, A.; Carey, S.; Ninkovich, D. (1978-01-12). "Volume and extent of the Minoan tephra from Santorini Volcano: new evidence from deep-sea sediment cores". Nature. 271 (5641): 122–126. Bibcode:1978Natur.271..122W. doi:10.1038/271122a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4210868.
  16. ^ Johnston, E. N.; Sparks, R. S. J.; Phillips, J. C.; Carey, S. (2014-06-09). "Revised estimates for the volume of the Late Bronze Age Minoan eruption, Santorini, Greece". Journal of the Geological Society. 171 (4): 583–590. Bibcode:2014JGSoc.171..583J. doi:10.1144/jgs2013-113. ISSN 0016-7649. S2CID 129937513.
  17. ^ Davidson, DA (1969). "Aegean Soils During the Second Millennium B.C. with Reference to Thera". Thera and the Aegean World I. Papers presented at the Second International Scientific Congress, Santorini, Greece, August 1978. UK: The Thera Foundation. pp. 725–39. ISBN 0-9506133-0-4. Archived from the original on 2007-08-21. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  18. ^ Gournelos, Theodoros; Evelpidou, Niki; Vassilopoulos, Andreas; Chartidou, Konstantia (2008). "Geomorphological Study of Thera". In Vassilopoulos, Andreas (ed.). Geoinformation Technologies for Geocultural Landscapes. CRC Press. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-415-46859-6.
  19. ^ Heiken, G; McCoy, F (1990). "Precursory Activity to the Minoan Eruption, Thera, Greece". Thera and the Aegean World III, Vol 2. London: The Thera Foundation. pp. 79–88.
  20. ^ a b Sivertsen, Barbara J. (2009). "The Minoan Eruption". The Parting of the Sea: How Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and Plagues Shaped the Story of the Exodus. Princeton University Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-691-13770-4.
  21. ^ a b McCoy, Floyd W.; Heiken, Grant (2000). "Tsunami Generated by the Late Bronze Age Eruption of Thera (Santorini), Greece". Pure and Applied Geophysics. 157 (6–8): 1235–41. Bibcode:2000PApGe.157.1227M. doi:10.1007/s000240050024. S2CID 129906882.
  22. ^ Savino, John; Jones, Marie D. (2007). "Aftereffects of Volcanoes". Supervolcano. Career Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-56414-953-4.
  23. ^ Gournelos, T; Evelpidou, N; Vassilopolous, A; Konstantia, C (2008). "Geomorphological Study of Thera and the Akrotiri Archeological Site". In A Vassilopoulos; N Evelpidou; O Bender; A Krek (eds.). Geoinformation technologies for geocultural landscapes: European perspective. CRC Press. pp. 237–54. ISBN 978-0-415-46859-6.
  24. ^ a b Keenan, Douglas J. (2003). "Volcanic ash retrieved from the GRIP ice core is not from Thera" (PDF). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 4 (11): 1097. Bibcode:2003GGG.....4.1097K. doi:10.1029/2003GC000608. 1525-2027. Retrieved 2011-04-24.
  25. ^ Stanley, DJ & Sheng, H (1986). "Volcanic shards from Santorini (Upper Minoan ash) in the Nile Delta, Egypt". Nature. 320, 1986 (6064): 733–35. Bibcode:1986Natur.320..733S. doi:10.1038/320733a0. S2CID 4043371.
  26. ^ Guichard, F; et al. (1993). "Tephra from the Minoan eruption of Santorini in sediments of the Black Sea". Nature. 363 (6430): 610–12. Bibcode:1993Natur.363..610G. doi:10.1038/363610a0. S2CID 4361493.
  27. ^ Liritzis I, Michael C, Galloway RB (1996). "A significant Aegean volcanic eruption during the second millennium BC revealed by thermoluminescence dating". Geoarchaeology. 11 (4): 361–71. Bibcode:1996Gearc..11..361L. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6548(199607)11:4<361::AID-GEA4>3.0.CO;2-#.
  28. ^ a b Time's up! : dating the Minoan eruption of Santorini : acts of the Minoan eruption chronology workshop, Sandbjerg November 2007, initiated by Jan Heinemeier & Walter L. Friedrich. Walter L. Friedrich, Jan Heinemeier, David Warburton. Athens: Danish Institute at Athens. 2009. ISBN 978-87-7934-652-9. OCLC 820828357.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  29. ^ Warren PM (1989). Summary of Evidence for the Absolute Chronology of the Early Part of the Aegean Late Bronze Age Derived from Historical Egyptian Sources in: Thera and the Aegean World III, Hardy, DA (ed). The Thera Foundation. pp. 24–26. ISBN 0-9506133-6-3. Archived from the original on 2007-03-21. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  30. ^ Warren, Peter (1984). "Archaeology: Absolute dating of the Bronze Age eruption of Thera (Santorini)". Nature. 308 (5959): 492–493. Bibcode:1984Natur.308..492W. doi:10.1038/308492a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4368792.
  31. ^ a b c Warren, Peter (1989). Aegean Bronze Age chronology. Vronwy Hankey. Bedminster, Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 0-906515-67-X. OCLC 21759588.
  32. ^ Pichler, Hans; Schiering, Wolfgang (1977). "The Thera eruption and Late Minoan-IB destructions on Crete". Nature. 267 (5614): 819–822. Bibcode:1977Natur.267..819P. doi:10.1038/267819a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4285103.
  33. ^ Ritner, Robert K.; Moeller, Nadine (2014-04-01). "The Ahmose 'Tempest Stela', Thera and Comparative Chronology". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 73 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1086/675069. ISSN 0022-2968. S2CID 161410518.
  34. ^ Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford history of ancient Egypt (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-159059-7. OCLC 743803162.
  35. ^ Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Dee, Michael W.; Rowland, Joanne M.; Higham, Thomas F. G.; Harris, Stephen A.; Brock, Fiona; Quiles, Anita; Wild, Eva M.; Marcus, Ezra S.; Shortland, Andrew J. (2010-06-18). "Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt". Science. 328 (5985): 1554–1557. Bibcode:2010Sci...328.1554R. doi:10.1126/science.1189395. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 20558717. S2CID 206526496.
  36. ^ a b c Manning, Sturt W.; Wacker, Lukas; Büntgen, Ulf; Bronk Ramsey, Christopher; Dee, Michael W.; Kromer, Bernd; Lorentzen, Brita; Tegel, Willy (2020-08-17). "Radiocarbon offsets and old world chronology as relevant to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia and Thera (Santorini)". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 13785. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1013785M. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-69287-2. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7431540. PMID 32807792.
  37. ^ Wiener, Malcolm H. (2015), Levy, Thomas E.; Schneider, Thomas; Propp, William H.C. (eds.), "Dating the Theran Eruption: Archaeological Science Versus Nonsense Science", Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective, Quantitative Methods in the Humanities and Social Sciences, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 131–143, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-04768-3_10, ISBN 978-3-319-04767-6, retrieved 2023-01-19
  38. ^ Manning, Sturt (1988-06-01). "The Bronze Age Eruption of Thera: Absolute Dating, Aegean Chronology and Mediterranean Culture Interrelations". Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology. 1 (1): 17–82. doi:10.1558/jmea.v1i1.17. ISSN 1743-1700.
  39. ^ a b Betancourt, P. P.; Michael, H. N. (1987). "Dating the Aegean Late Bronze Age with Radiocarbon: Addendum". Archaeometry. 29 (2): 212–213. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1987.tb00413.x. ISSN 0003-813X.
  40. ^ Kemp, Barry J. (1980). Minoan pottery in second millennium Egypt. R. S. Merrillees, Elmar Edel, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut. Abteilung Kairo. Mainz am Rhein: P. von Zabern. ISBN 3-8053-0429-3. OCLC 7506121.
  41. ^ Cadogan, G. (1978). "Dating the Aegean Bronze Age Without Radiocarbon". Archaeometry. 20 (2): 209–214. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1978.tb00234.x. ISSN 0003-813X.
  42. ^ a b Höflmayer, Felix (2012). "The Date of the Minoan Santorini Eruption: Quantifying the "Offset"". Radiocarbon. 54 (3–4): 435–448. Bibcode:2012Radcb..54..435H. doi:10.1017/S0033822200047196. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 220703729.
  43. ^ Manning, Sturt W.; Höflmayer, Felix; Moeller, Nadine; Dee, Michael W.; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Fleitmann, Dominik; Higham, Thomas; Kutschera, Walter; Wild, Eva Maria (2014). "Dating the Thera (Santorini) eruption: archaeological and scientific evidence supporting a high chronology". Antiquity. 88 (342): 1164–1179. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00115388. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 130142259.
  44. ^ a b c d e f Reimer, Paula J; Austin, William E N; Bard, Edouard; Bayliss, Alex; Blackwell, Paul G; Bronk Ramsey, Christopher; Butzin, Martin; Cheng, Hai; Edwards, R Lawrence; Friedrich, Michael; Grootes, Pieter M; Guilderson, Thomas P; Hajdas, Irka; Heaton, Timothy J; Hogg, Alan G (2020). "The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55 cal kBP)". Radiocarbon. 62 (4): 725–757. Bibcode:2020Radcb..62..725R. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.41. hdl:10023/20465. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 216215614.
  45. ^ a b Hammer, C. U.; Clausen, H. B.; Friedrich, W. L.; Tauber, H. (1987). "The Minoan eruption of Santorini in Greece dated to 1645 BC?". Nature. 328 (6130): 517–519. Bibcode:1987Natur.328..517H. doi:10.1038/328517a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4359049.
  46. ^ Stuiver, Minze; Pearson, Gordon W (1986). "High-Precision Calibration of the Radiocarbon Time Scale, AD 1950–500 BC". Radiocarbon. 28 (2B): 805–838. Bibcode:1986Radcb..28..805S. doi:10.1017/S0033822200060161. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 129260188.
  47. ^ Bronk Ramsey, Christopher; Manning, Sturt W; Galimberti, Mariagrazia (2004). "Dating the Volcanic Eruption at Thera". Radiocarbon. 46 (1): 325–344. Bibcode:2004Radcb..46..325B. doi:10.1017/S0033822200039631. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 129016703.
  48. ^ Stuiver, Minze; Reimer, Paula J.; Bard, Edouard; Beck, J. Warren; Burr, G. S.; Hughen, Konrad A.; Kromer, Bernd; McCormac, Gerry; Van Der Plicht, Johannes; Spurk, Marco (1998). "INTCAL98 Radiocarbon Age Calibration, 24,000–0 cal BP". Radiocarbon. 40 (3): 1041–1083. Bibcode:1998Radcb..40.1041S. doi:10.1017/S0033822200019123. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 128394089.
  49. ^ Manning, Sturt W.; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Kutschera, Walter; Higham, Thomas; Kromer, Bernd; Steier, Peter; Wild, Eva M. (2006-04-28). "Chronology for the Aegean Late Bronze Age 1700-1400 B.C." Science. 312 (5773): 565–569. Bibcode:2006Sci...312..565M. doi:10.1126/science.1125682. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 16645092. S2CID 21557268.
  50. ^ a b "Intcal04 Terrestrial Radiocarbon Age Calibration, 0–26 Cal Kyr BP". Radiocarbon. 46 (3): 1029–1058. 2004. Bibcode:2004Radcb..46.1029.. doi:10.1017/S0033822200032999. hdl:10289/3690. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 38359692.
  51. ^ Friedrich, Walter L.; Kromer, Bernd; Friedrich, Michael; Heinemeier, Jan; Pfeiffer, Tom; Talamo, Sahra (2006-04-28). "Santorini Eruption Radiocarbon Dated to 1627-1600 B.C." Science. 312 (5773): 548. doi:10.1126/science.1125087. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 16645088. S2CID 35908442.
  52. ^ Manning, Sturt W; Kromer, Bernd; Bronk Ramsey, Christopher; Pearson, Charlotte L; Talamo, Sahra; Trano, Nicole; Watkins, Jennifer D (2010). "14 C Record and Wiggle-Match Placement for the Anatolian (Gordion Area) Juniper Tree-Ring Chronology ~1729 to 751 Cal BC, and Typical Aegean/Anatolian (Growing Season Related) Regional 14 C Offset Assessment". Radiocarbon. 52 (4): 1571–1597. Bibcode:2010Radcb..52.1571M. doi:10.1017/S0033822200056320. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 128115581.
  53. ^ a b Reimer, P J; Baillie, M G L; Bard, E; Bayliss, A; Beck, J W; Blackwell, P G; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C E; Burr, G S; Edwards, R L; Friedrich, M; Grootes, P M; Guilderson, T P; Hajdas, I; Heaton, T J (2009). "IntCal09 and Marine09 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curves, 0–50,000 Years cal BP". Radiocarbon. 51 (4): 1111–1150. Bibcode:2009Radcb..51.1111R. doi:10.1017/S0033822200034202. hdl:10289/3622. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 12608574.
  54. ^ a b c d e f Pearson, Charlotte L.; et al. (2018). "Annual radiocarbon record indicates 16th century BCE date for the Thera eruption". Science Advances. 4 (8): eaar8241. Bibcode:2018SciA....4.8241P. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aar8241. PMC 6093623. PMID 30116779.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  55. ^ Reimer, Paula J; Bard, Edouard; Bayliss, Alex; Beck, J Warren; Blackwell, Paul G; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Buck, Caitlin E; Cheng, Hai; Edwards, R Lawrence; Friedrich, Michael; Grootes, Pieter M; Guilderson, Thomas P; Haflidason, Haflidi; Hajdas, Irka; Hatté, Christine (2013). "IntCal13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curves 0–50,000 Years cal BP". Radiocarbon. 55 (4): 1869–1887. Bibcode:2013Radcb..55.1869R. doi:10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16947. hdl:1893/19275. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 4976475.
  56. ^ Pearson, Charlotte; Wacker, Lukas; Bayliss, Alex; Brown, David; Salzer, Matthew; Brewer, Peter; Bollhalder, Silvia; Boswijk, Gretel; Hodgins, Gregory (2020). "Annual Variation in Atmospheric 14 C Between 1700 BC and 1480 BC". Radiocarbon. 62 (4): 939–952. Bibcode:2020Radcb..62..939P. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.14. hdl:1893/30975. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 216122941.
  57. ^ Friedrich, Ronny; Kromer, Bernd; Wacker, Lukas; Olsen, Jesper; Remmele, Sabine; Lindauer, Susanne; Land, Alexander; Pearson, Charlotte (2020). "A New Annual 14 C Dataset for Calibrating the Thera Eruption". Radiocarbon. 62 (4): 953–961. Bibcode:2020Radcb..62..953F. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.33. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 225767707.
  58. ^ Kuitems, Margot; van der Plicht, Johannes; Jansma, Esther (2020). "Wood from the Netherlands around the Time of the Santorini Eruption Dated by Dendrochronology and Radiocarbon". Radiocarbon. 62 (4): 963–967. Bibcode:2020Radcb..62..963K. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.23. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 219096499.
  59. ^ Ehrlich, Yael; Regev, Lior; Boaretto, Elisabetta (2018-08-09). "Radiocarbon analysis of modern olive wood raises doubts concerning a crucial piece of evidence in dating the Santorini eruption". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 11841. Bibcode:2018NatSR...811841E. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-29392-9. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6085306. PMID 30093696.
  60. ^ a b Manning, Sturt W.; Kromer, Bernd; Cremaschi, Mauro; Dee, Michael W.; Friedrich, Ronny; Griggs, Carol; Hadden, Carla S. (2020-03-20). "Mediterranean radiocarbon offsets and calendar dates for prehistory". Science Advances. 6 (12): eaaz1096. Bibcode:2020SciA....6.1096M. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz1096. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 7080444. PMID 32206721.
  61. ^ Bayliss, Alex; Marshall, Peter; Dee, Michael W; Friedrich, Michael; Heaton, Timothy J; Wacker, Lukas (2020). "IntCal20 Tree Rings: An Archaeological Swot Analysis". Radiocarbon. 62 (4): 1045–1078. Bibcode:2020Radcb..62.1045B. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.77. hdl:1893/31644. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 223647996.
  62. ^ Pearson, Charlotte; Salzer, Matthew; Wacker, Lukas; Brewer, Peter; Sookdeo, Adam; Kuniholm, Peter (2020-08-04). "Reply to Manning: Dating of Gordion tree-ring sequence still stands within a year of 745 BC". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (31): 18159–18160. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11718159P. doi:10.1073/pnas.2007824117. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 7414178. PMID 32753551.
  63. ^ Sahoglu, Vasif; et al. (2021). "Volcanic ash, victims, and tsunami debris from the Late Bronze Age Thera eruption discovered at Çeşme-Bağlararası (Turkey)". PNAS. 119 (1). e2114213118. doi:10.1073/pnas.2114213118. PMC 8740722. PMID 34969845.
  64. ^ Ehrlich, Yael; Regev, Lior; Boaretto, Elisabetta (2021-01-12). "Discovery of annual growth in a modern olive branch based on carbon isotopes and implications for the Bronze Age volcanic eruption of Santorini". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 704. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-79024-4. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7804959. PMID 33436660.
  65. ^ a b Manning, S. W. (2022). "Second Intermediate Period date for the Thera (Santorini) eruption and historical implications". PLOS ONE. 17 (9). e0274835. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1774835M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0274835. PMC 9488803. PMID 36126026.
  66. ^ Pearson, Charlotte; Sbonias, Kostas; Tzachili, Iris; Heaton, Timothy J. (2023-04-28). "Olive shrub buried on Therasia supports a mid-16th century BCE date for the Thera eruption". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 6994. Bibcode:2023NatSR..13.6994P. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-33696-w. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 10147620. PMID 37117199.
  67. ^ Cadoux, Anita; Scaillet, Bruno; Bekki, Slimane; Oppenheimer, Clive; Druitt, Timothy H. (2015-07-24). "Stratospheric Ozone destruction by the Bronze-Age Minoan eruption (Santorini Volcano, Greece)". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 12243. Bibcode:2015NatSR...512243C. doi:10.1038/srep12243. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4513290. PMID 26206616. S2CID 2033932.
  68. ^ Baillie, M. G. L.; Munro, M. a. R. (1988). "Irish tree rings, Santorini and volcanic dust veils". Nature. 332 (6162): 344–346. Bibcode:1988Natur.332..344B. doi:10.1038/332344a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4286911.
  69. ^ Grudd, Håkan; Briffa, Keith R.; Gunnarson, Björn E.; Linderholm, Hans W. (2000-09-15). "Swedish tree rings provide new evidence in support of a major, widespread environmental disruption in 1628 BC". Geophysical Research Letters. 27 (18): 2957–2960. Bibcode:2000GeoRL..27.2957G. doi:10.1029/1999GL010852. S2CID 129912286.
  70. ^ Kuniholm, Peter Ian; Kromer, Bernd; Manning, Sturt W.; Newton, Maryanne; Latini, Christine E.; Bruce, Mary Jaye (1996). "Anatolian tree rings and the absolute chronology of the eastern Mediterranean, 2220–718 BC". Nature. 381 (6585): 780–783. Bibcode:1996Natur.381..780K. doi:10.1038/381780a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4318188.
  71. ^ Pearce, N. J. G., J. A. Westgate, S. J. Preece, W. J. Eastwood, and W. T. Perkins (2004). "Identification of Aniakchak (Alaska) tephra in Greenland ice core challenges the 1645 BC date for Minoan eruption of Santorini". Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 5 (3): Q03005. Bibcode:2004GGG.....5.3005P. doi:10.1029/2003GC000672.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  72. ^ Coulter, Sarah E.; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; Plunkett, Gill; Baillie, Mike; Hall, Valerie A.; Steffensen, J. P.; Vinther, Bo M.; Clausen, Henrik B.; Johnsen, Sigfus J. (2012). "Holocene tephras highlight complexity of volcanic signals in Greenland ice cores". Journal of Geophysical Research. 117 (D21): n/a. Bibcode:2012JGRD..11721303C. doi:10.1029/2012JD017698.
  73. ^ Plunkett, Gill; Pearce, N. J.; McConnell, J.; Pilcher, Jonathan; Sigl, Michael; Zhao, Hongli (2017-10-01). "Trace element analysis of Late Holocene tephras from Greenland ice cores". Quaternary Newsletter. 143: 10–20. ISSN 0143-2826.
  74. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Pearson, Charlotte; Sigl, Michael; Burke, Andrea; Davies, Siwan; Kurbatov, Andrei; Severi, Mirko; Cole-Dai, Jihong; Innes, Helen; Albert, Paul G.; Helmick, Meredith (2022). "Geochemical ice-core constraints on the timing and climatic impact of Aniakchak II (1628 BCE) and Thera (Minoan) volcanic eruptions". PNAS Nexus. 1 (2): pgac048. doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac048. PMC 9802406. PMID 36713327.
  75. ^ McAneney, Jonny; Baillie, Mike (2019). "Absolute tree-ring dates for the Late Bronze Age eruptions of Aniakchak and Thera in light of a proposed revision of ice-core chronologies". Antiquity. 93 (367): 99–112. doi:10.15184/aqy.2018.165.
  76. ^ Sigl, Michael; Toohey, Matthew; McConnell, Joseph R.; Cole-Dai, Jihong; Severi, Mirko (2022-07-12). "Volcanic stratospheric sulfur injections and aerosol optical depth during the Holocene (past 11 500 years) from a bipolar ice-core array". Earth System Science Data. 14 (7): 3167–3196. Bibcode:2022ESSD...14.3167S. doi:10.5194/essd-14-3167-2022. hdl:2158/1279650. ISSN 1866-3516.
  77. ^ Sinnl, Giulia; Winstrup, Mai; Erhardt, Tobias; Cook, Eliza; Jensen, Camilla Marie; Svensson, Anders; Vinther, Bo Møllesøe; Muscheler, Raimund; Rasmussen, Sune Olander (2022-05-24). "A multi-ice-core, annual-layer-counted Greenland ice-core chronology for the last 3800 years: GICC21". Climate of the Past. 18 (5): 1125–1150. Bibcode:2022CliPa..18.1125S. doi:10.5194/cp-18-1125-2022. ISSN 1814-9324.
  78. ^ Pearson, Charlotte; Salzer, Matthew; Wacker, Lukas; Brewer, Peter; Sookdeo, Adam; Kuniholm, Peter (2020-04-14). "Securing timelines in the ancient Mediterranean using multiproxy annual tree-ring data". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (15): 8410–8415. Bibcode:2020PNAS..117.8410P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1917445117. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 7165418. PMID 32229554.
  79. ^ a b c d e f Salzer, Matthew W.; Hughes, Malcolm K. (2007). "Bristlecone pine tree rings and volcanic eruptions over the last 5000 yr". Quaternary Research. 67 (1): 57–68. Bibcode:2007QuRes..67...57S. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2006.07.004. ISSN 0033-5894. S2CID 14654597.
  80. ^ Manning, Sturt W.; Griggs, Carol B.; Lorentzen, Brita; Barjamovic, Gojko; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Kromer, Bernd; Wild, Eva Maria (2016-07-13). "Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millennium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology". PLOS ONE. 11 (7): e0157144. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1157144M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157144. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4943651. PMID 27409585.
  81. ^ Pearson, Charlotte L.; Dale, Darren S.; Brewer, Peter W.; Kuniholm, Peter I.; Lipton, Jeffrey; Manning, Sturt W. (2009-06-01). "Dendrochemical analysis of a tree-ring growth anomaly associated with the Late Bronze Age eruption of Thera". Journal of Archaeological Science. 36 (6): 1206–1214. Bibcode:2009JArSc..36.1206P. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.01.009. ISSN 0305-4403.
  82. ^ Badertscher, S.; Borsato, A.; Frisia, S.; Cheng, H.; Edwards, R.L.; Tüysüz, O.; Fleitmann, D. (2014). "Speleothems as sensitive recorders of volcanic eruptions – the Bronze Age Minoan eruption recorded in a stalagmite from Turkey". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 392: 58–66. Bibcode:2014E&PSL.392...58B. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.01.041.
  83. ^ Doumas, Christos (2012). "Akrotiri". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 752–761. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0056. ISBN 978-0199873609.
  84. ^ a b c Younger, John; Rehak, Paul (2008). "The Material Culture of Neopalatial Crete". In Shelmerdine, Cynthia (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press. p. 140. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521814447.007. ISBN 978-0-521-89127-1.
  85. ^ Callender, G (1999). The Minoans and the Mycenaeans: Aegean Society in the Bronze Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-551028-3.
  86. ^ a b MacGillivray, J. Alexander; Sackett, L. High (2012). "Palaikastro". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 571–581. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0043. ISBN 978-0199873609.
  87. ^ McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 81–82.
  88. ^ Davis, Jack (2008). "Minoan Crete and the Aegean Islands". In Shelmerdine, Cynthia (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press. p. 205. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521814447.009. ISBN 978-0-521-89127-1.
  89. ^ a b c Hallager, Erik (2012). "Crete". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 149–159. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0011. ISBN 978-0199873609.
  90. ^ McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 82–83, 113.
  91. ^ McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 113.
  92. ^ McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 81–82, 113.
  93. ^ Driessen, Jan; MacDonald, Colin (1997). The Troubled Island: Minoan Crete Before and After the Santorini Eruption. Peeters. ISBN 978-9042924161.
  94. ^ Foster, KP, Ritner, RK, and Foster, BR (1996). "Texts, Storms, and the Thera Eruption". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 55 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1086/373781. S2CID 162024484.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  95. ^ EN, Davis (1990). "A Storm in Egypt during the Reign of Ahmose". Thera and the Aegean World III. Thera Foundation. Archived from the original on 14 March 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  96. ^ Goedicke, Hans (1995). "Chapter 3". Studies about Kamose and Ahmose. Baltimore: David Brown Book Company. ISBN 0-9613805-8-6.
  97. ^ Christopher Bronk Ramsey et al., Science June 18, 2010: Vol. 328. no. 5985, pp. 1554–1557.
  98. ^ a b Wiener, MH; Allen, JP (1998). "Separate Lives: The Ahmose Tempest Stela and the Theran Eruption". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 57. University of Chicago Press: 1–28. doi:10.1086/468596. S2CID 162153296.
  99. ^ Greene, MT (2000). Natural Knowledge in Preclassical Antiquity. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6371-4.[page needed]
  100. ^ Luce, John Victor (1969). The end of Atlantis: New light on an old legend. New Aspects of Antiquity. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-39005-4.[page needed]
  101. ^ Marinatos, Spyridon (1972). Some Words about the Legend at Atlantis (2nd ed.). Athens: C. Papachrysanthou.
  102. ^ Neer, Richard (2012). Art and Archaeology of the Greek World. Thames and Hudson. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-500-05166-5. "...popular associations of the eruption with a legend of Atlantis should be dismissed...nor is there good evidence to suggest that the eruption...brought about the collapse of Minoan Crete
  103. ^ Manning, Stuart (2012). "Eruption of Thera/Santorini". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 457–454. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0034. ISBN 978-0199873609. Marinatos (1939) famously suggested that the eruption might even have caused the destruction of Minoan Crete (also Page 1970). Although this simple hypothesis has been negated by the findings of excavation and other research since the late 1960s... which demonstrate that the eruption occurred late in the Late Minoan IA ceramic period, whereas the destructions of the Cretan palaces and so on are some time subsequent (late in the following Late Minoan IB ceramic period)
  104. ^ Brouwers, Josho (2021). "Did Atlantis Exist?". Bad Ancient. Retrieved August 30, 2023.
  105. ^ Callender, G (1999). The Minoans and the Mycenaeans: Aegean Society in the Bronze Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-551028-3.
  106. ^ Jaynes, Julian (1976). The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind (1st ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0395329320.

Further reading

edit
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minoan_eruption&oldid=1252178622"