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Foreign relations of Mali

Following independence in 1960, Mali initially followed a socialist path and was aligned ideologically with the communist bloc. Mali's foreign policy orientation became increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time. Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 1992, Mali's relations with the West in general and the United States in particular have improved significantly. U.S.-Malian relations are described by the U.S. Department of State as "excellent and expanding," especially given Mali's recent record of democratic stability in the volatile area of West Africa and its avowed support of the war on terrorism. Mali is reported to be one of the largest recipients of U.S. aid in Africa.[1]

A Malian Visa

Mali is active in regional organizations such as the African Union (AU). Working to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major foreign policy goals. Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy. General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional regions.[1]

Although Azawad, a region spanning the expansive north of Mali, was proclaimed independent in April 2012 by Tuareg rebels, Mali has not recognised the de facto state.[2] Britain has closed its embassy; ECOWAS has declared an embargo against Mali, aiming to squeeze out Malian oil supplies; closed Mali's assets in the ECOWAS regional bank and has prepared a potential intervention force of 3,000 troops. France has declared it will assist in a potential intervention.[3]

Multilateral membership

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Mali is a member of the United Nations (and many of its specialized agencies), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the Universal Postal Union (UPU) and the International Criminal Court (ICC). It also belongs to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU); Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC); Non-Aligned Movement (NAM); an associate member of the European Community (EC); and African Development Bank (ADB).

Mali is active in regional organizations. It participates in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the West African Economic Monetary Union (UEMOA) for regional economic integration; Liptako–Gourma Authority, which seeks to develop the contiguous areas of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso; the Niger River Commission; the Permanent Interstate Committee for drought control in the Sahel (CILSS); and the Senegal River Valley Development Organization (OMVS).

Historically, Mali has used these organizations to leverage the promotion of regional peacekeeping efforts. One of the largest issues facing the country is security threats from extremist groups and consequential political unrest. One of the most prominent examples of this is Mali's former membership the G5 Sahel with the fellow member states Burkina Faso (formerly), Chad, Mauritania, and Niger (formerly). The Sahel was originally formed on 16 February 2014, with the main objective of encouraging security and development. This partnership is historically significant due to the group's shared colonizer, France. In its first year of existence, the organization formed a legal framework for strategic intervention and a secretariat located in Nouakchott, Mauritania.[4] The framework was titled the Development and Security Strategy (SDS). In 2017, the G5 Sahel Joint Force was created and funded through the Priority Investment Program (PIP), aiming to reduce violence and create more stability in the region. In a December 2018 coordination conference, $2.6 billion was pledged from foreign nations including the United States, European Union, Saudi Arabia, and China. American and French financial support is suspected to be, in part, a result of their consequentially lowered troop commitment in the region. This military collective targets organized crime and religious extremists specifically with cross-border operations. In addition to military-centered approaches, Mali and Niger have implemented Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration, or DDR, programs while Mauritania and Burkina Faso have not. DDR is an approach that removes weapons, breaks up crime organizations, and reintegrates combatants into civilian life or state-sanctioned armed forces. Although more costly and time-intensive, DDR has proven to be more sustainable than other stabilization approaches over time.[5] The G5 Sahel has been weakening in the most recent years, with many forces from the European Union pulling their troops to concentrate their efforts on the ongoing Ukrainian conflict.[6] However, to compensate, the Sahel member states have reported on plans to expand the size of their force from six to fourteen battalions.[7] Biannual reports from the Sahel have revealed that the efforts have become increasingly dire with high humanitarian needs and large terrorist activity with large resource and land occupation.[8] This eventually lead to its withdrawal on 15 May 2022.[9]

As seen with the G5-Sahel, Mali has not been a particularly active or compliant member of these organizations as a result of their ongoing political unrest. Despite some early successful peacekeeping initiatives by ECOWAS and the AU, their most recent joint policies are facing challenges of limited institutional capacity, low enforcement, and inexplicit language surrounding its implementation.[10] ECOWAS was originally founded to promote economic development across its 15 West African member states, but also works to promote political institutions and stability. Recently, it promised to end the unconstitutional takeover of political power in member states,[11] but Mali has since developed new policies to distance themselves from the organization and limit its reach.[12]

The UN has also attempted many peacekeeping missions focusing on political unrest, economic objectives, and women's rights throughout Mali's history. The most notable effort began with the UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) in 2013. In 2022, Mali restricted United Nations peacekeeping operations through their security council[13] and, in June 2023, asked for them to be removed. Although this program is being dissolved, some UN presence will remain in Mali. This effort kept about 15,000 soldiers and police personnel in Mali throughout the project's decade, but has recently been threatened by nearby territorial conflicts. It is also rumored that this removal may be the result of some strategic differences.[14] Since the AU's creation in 2002, there have been some difficulties aligning it with the UN. Generally, the AU prioritizes short-term solutions over long-term, which is opposite to the UN. This disagreement has contributed to arguments about jurisdiction and the correct approach to security efforts.[15]

Diplomatic relations

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List of countries which Mali maintains diplomatic relations with:

 
# Country Date
1   France 20 August 1960[16]
2   Germany 23 September 1960[17]
3   United States 24 September 1960[18]
4   Ghana 14 October 1960[19]
5   Liberia 14 October 1960[20]
6   Russia 14 October 1960[21]
7   Czech Republic 17 October 1960[22]
8   Bulgaria 23 October 1960[23]
9   China 25 October 1960[24]
10   Vietnam 31 October 1960[25]
11   Serbia 4 November 1960[26]
—   Israel (suspended) 27 November 1960[27]
12   Romania 1 December 1960[28]
13   Cuba 30 December 1960[29]
14   Egypt 10 January 1961[30]
15   Morocco 10 January 1961[30]
16   Mongolia 25 January 1961[31]
17   Guinea 3 March 1961[32]
18   Hungary 12 March 1961[33]
19   United Kingdom 15 March 1961[34]
20   Burkina Faso 18 March 1961[35]
21   Poland 12 May 1961[36]
22    Switzerland 26 May 1961[37]
23   North Korea 29 August 1961[38]
24   Lebanon 9 October 1961[39]
25   Democratic Republic of the Congo 23 November 1961[40][41]
26   Japan 18 January 1962[42]
27   Brazil 24 January 1962[43]
28   India 24 January 1962[44]
29   Ivory Coast 16 April 1962[45]
30   Italy 27 April 1962[46]
31   Niger 1 August 1962[47]
32   Nigeria 1 August 1962[48]
33   Sudan 19 August 1962[49]
34   Haiti 21 August 1962[50]
35   Cameroon 13 October 1962[51][52]
36   Saudi Arabia 1962[53]
37   Sierra Leone 1962[54]
38   Canada 7 January 1963[55]
39   Republic of the Congo 20 February 1963[56]
40   Turkey 17 April 1963[57]
41   Senegal 22 June 1963[58]
42   Kuwait 3 July 1963[59]
43   Algeria 22 July 1963[60]
44   Belgium 1 August 1963[61]
45   Chile 5 September 1963[62]
46   Gabon 30 October 1963[63]
47   Mauritania 1963[64]
48   Pakistan 1963[65]
49   Tunisia 1963[66]
50   Ethiopia 23 March 1964[67]
51   Netherlands 11 July 1964[68]
52   Spain 20 August 1964[69]
53   Argentina 8 September 1964[70]
54   Burundi 4 November 1964[71]
55   Kenya 4 November 1964[71]
56   Uganda 4 November 1964[71]
57   Tanzania 24 November 1964[72]
58   Syria 29 November 1964[73]
59   Sweden 25 January 1965[74]
60   Albania 9 February 1965[75]
61   Indonesia 21 June 1965[76]
62   Benin 27 August 1965[77]
63   Luxembourg 15 December 1965[78]
64   Chad 15 January 1966[79]
65   Central African Republic 1968[80]
66   Togo 1969[81]
67   Austria 21 February 1970[82]
68   Gambia 25 June 1971[83]
69   Libya 17 November 1972[84]
70   Denmark 1972[85]
71   Fiji 10 April 1973[86]
72   Iran 12 April 1975[87]
73   Cambodia 31 October 1976[88]
74   Portugal 17 December 1976[89]
75   Venezuela 24 December 1976[90]
76   Greece 1976[91]
77   Laos 2 January 1977[92]
78   Mexico 23 March 1977[93]
79   Bahrain 6 June 1977[94]
80   Norway 17 June 1977[95]
81   Qatar 1977[96]
82   Oman 2 March 1979[97]
83   Yemen April 1979[98]
—   Holy See 29 October 1979[99]
84   Cape Verde 1979[100]
85   Somalia 1979[101]
86   Iraq 5 September 1980[102]
87   Maldives 16 October 1980[103]
88   Malta 8 December 1980[104]
89   Guinea-Bissau 1980[105]
90   United Arab Emirates 18 August 1981[106]
91   Thailand 15 September 1981[107]
92   Bangladesh 30 September 1981[108]
93   Malaysia 21 August 1982[109]
94   New Zealand 6 March 1983[110]
95   Australia 15 March 1984[111]
—   Sovereign Military Order of Malta 1986[112]
96   Rwanda 6 January 1987[113]
97   Zambia 2 October 1987[114]
98   Jordan 25 April 1988[115]
99   Colombia 29 September 1988[116]
100   Singapore 29 August 1989[117]
101   Cyprus 26 January 1990[118]
102   South Korea 27 September 1990[119]
103   Kyrgyzstan 5 November 1992[120]
—   Ukraine (severed)[121] 5 November 1992[122]
104   Estonia 13 November 1992[123]
105   Turkmenistan 16 November 1992[124]
106   Kazakhstan 26 November 1992[125]
107   Latvia 26 November 1992[126]
108   Slovenia 3 December 1992[127]
109   Slovakia 12 February 1993[128]
110   Nicaragua 27 July 1993[129]
111   Tajikistan 15 October 1993[130]
112   Belarus 3 November 1993[131]
113   Equatorial Guinea 4 November 1993[132]
114   Armenia 21 February 1994[133]
115   South Africa 6 May 1994[134]
116   Bosnia and Herzegovina 10 December 1994[135]
117   Lithuania 21 November 1995[136]
118   Azerbaijan 26 November 1996[137]
119   Uzbekistan 13 February 1997[138]
120   Peru 16 July 1998[139]
121   Seychelles April 2001[140]
122   Croatia 13 September 2001[141]
123   Angola 28 October 2002[142]
124   Philippines 2002[143]
125   Madagascar 1 August 2003[144]
126   Mauritius 1 December 2003[145]
127   Jamaica 17 December 2003[146]
128   Iceland 23 July 2004[147]
129   Moldova 27 September 2004[148]
130   Namibia 27 October 2004[149]
131   Finland 18 August 2005[150]
132   Zimbabwe 23 March 2006[151]
133   Guatemala 7 July 2006[152]
134   Dominican Republic 15 September 2006[153]
135   Botswana 5 June 2007[154]
136   Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 11 June 2007[155]
137     Nepal 19 November 2009[156]
138   Paraguay 25 June 2010[157]
139   Mozambique 13 July 2011[158]
140   Sri Lanka 19 January 2012[159]
141   Monaco 26 January 2012[160]
142   Eritrea 16 February 2012[161]
143   Montenegro 10 May 2012[162]
144   Georgia 31 May 2012[163]
145   Djibouti 12 November 2012[164]
146   El Salvador 23 September 2014[165]
147   Ecuador 17 April 2015[166]
148   Comoros 16 February 2016[167]
149   Barbados 22 July 2021[168]
150   Malawi 2 August 2023[169]
151   Saint Lucia 26 June 2024[170]
152   Brunei Unknown
153   Eswatini Unknown
154   Ireland Unknown[171]
—   State of Palestine Unknown
155   São Tomé and Príncipe Unknown
156   Uruguay Unknown

Bilateral relations

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Country Formal Relations Began Notes
  Algeria 22 July 1963

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 July 1963.[60]

During the Tuareg rebellion of 2012, the Algerian consulate was seized by at least two people wearing explosives belts. Seven hostages were taken, including the consul. In regards to Azawad's UDI, Algeria's Prime Minister has declared it would never "accept questioning Mali's territorial integrity" Algeria has planned to co-ordinate with MNLA to work towards freeing the hostages.

  • Algeria has an embassy in Bamako.
  • Mali has an embassy in Algiers.
  Azerbaijan 26 November 1996
  • Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 November 1996[137]
  • The Azerbaijani embassy in Rabat is accredited to Mali.[172]
  Belgium 1 August 1963 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 August 1963 when M. Gerard Walravens, first Ambassador of Belgium to Mali, resident in Abidjan, presented his letters of credentials to President Modibo Keita.[61]
  Benin 27 August 1965 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 August 1965 when first ambassador of Mali to Dahomey (resident in Niamey) Mr. Hangadoumbo Toure presented his credentials.[77]
  Brazil 24 January 1962 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 January 1962.[43]
  • Brazil has an embassy in Bamako.
  • Mali has an embassy in Brasília.
  Canada 7 January 1963 See Canada–Mali relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 January 1963[55]

Mali established its embassy in Canada in 1978, with its first appointed ambassador Zana Ousmane Dao,[173] while Canada's embassy in Mali has been open since 1995.[174] Canada has moved from Mali's sixth-largest donor of bilateral official development assistance in 2000 to third-largest in 2007.[175] The value of Canada's exports of goods to Mali exceeded imports from Mali by Cdn.$22m. between 1990 and 2008.[176] Natural Resources Canada estimated that Canadian mining investment in Mali reached Cdn.$500 million in 2009,[177] and in 2005, 73 mining concessions were held by Canadian firms in Mali.[178]

  • Canada has an embassy in Bamako.
  • Mali has an embassy in Ottawa.
  China 25 October 1960 See China–Mali relations

China established diplomatic relations with the Republic of Mali on 25 October 1960[24]

  • China has an embassy in Bamako.
  • Mali has an embassy in Beijing.[179]
  Cuba 30 December 1960 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 December 1960[29]
  • Cuba has an embassy in Bamako.
  • Mali has an embassy in Havana.
  Cyprus 26 January 1990 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 January 1990 when first Ambassador of Mali to Cyprus Mr. Sinally Coulibaly presented his credentials[118]
  Ethiopia 23 March 1964 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 March 1964 when first Ambassador of the Republic of Mali, Mr. Modibo Diallo, has presented his credentials to Emperor Haile Selassie[67]
  Finland 18 August 2005 See Finland–Mali relations
  France 20 August 1960

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 August 1960[16]

Mali has a longstanding relationship with France, its former colonial ruler, but relations have been described as ambivalent rather than close. Mali dropped out of the Franc Zone shortly after independence, not rejoining until 1967. One contentious issue between the two nations is the frequent expulsion of illegal Malian immigrants from France since 1996.[1]

However, France has played a significant part in helping Mali via military support in the Northern Mali conflict, with soldiers of the two nations' armies working together to take back territory from the rebels.[180] This military intervention, named Operation Barkhane, had the main objectives of strengthening Mali's armed forces and counterrorism efforts which began in 2013.[181] It was meant to bring stability to the state's institutions but, ultimately, helped to enable the 2020 military-led coup d'état.[182] In 2022, Mali expelled the last 2,400 troops of the advanced French military services due to increased violence and worsening conditions following the 2021 coup.[183] This marked a shift in relations between the two countries but appears to have not threatened other forms of support, such as financial aid. France has historically lent significant funding to Mali, most notably starting in December 2018 during the G-5 Sahel's Joint Force's Priority Investment Program (PIP) conference. This funding was meant to boost security efforts with the G5 Sahel, raising US$2.6 billion in pledges for the region from international donors.[5] Since the dismantling of the Sahel, it is unclear if and how these funds have been distributed. France also donated US$128 million between 2020–2021 to Mali through the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development's Development Assistance Committee (OECD-DAC).[184]

  • France has an embassy in Bamako.
  • Mali has an embassy in Paris.
  Gambia 25 June 1971 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 June 1971 when Gambia's first Ambassador to Mali, Mr. Samuel Jonathan Okiki Sarr, presented his credentials to the Head of States, Lieut. Traore.[83]
  Germany 23 September 1960 See Germany–Mali relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 September 1960[17]

  India 24 January 1962 See India–Mali relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 January 1962.[44]

  Indonesia 21 June 1965 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 June 1965 when M. Souraedi Tashi, Indonesia's first Ambassador to Mali, presented his credentials to President Modibo Keita.[76]
  Libya 17 November 1972 See Libya-Mali relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 November 1972 when the first Libyan Ambassador to Mali, Muhammad Ahmad Mograhi, presented his credentials to President Mousa Traore.[84]

  • Libya has an embassy in Bamako.
  • Mali has an embassy in Tripoli.
  Mauritania 1963 See Mali–Mauritania relations

Since Mauritania negotiated a boundary dispute with Mali in 1963, ties between the two countries have been mostly cordial. Mali and Mauritania have cooperated on several development projects, such as the OMVS and a plan to improve roads between Nouakchott and Bamako. This cooperation somewhat lessened Mali's dependence on Senegal and Ivory Coast. Although relations were warm with other black African states, since 1965 the orientation of Mauritania's foreign policy has been geared towards relations with North African countries.[189]

  • Mali has an embassy in Nouakchott.
  • Mauritania has an embassy in Bamako.
  Mexico 23 March 1977 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 March 1977[93]
  • Mali is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C..[190]
  • Mexico is accredited to Mali from its embassy in Rabat and has an honorary consulate in Bamako.[191]
  Namibia 27 October 2004 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 October 2004 when has been accredited non-resident Ambassador of Mali to Namibia Mr. Sinally Coulibaly.[149]
  Netherlands 11 July 1964 See Mali–Netherlands relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 July 1964 when has been accredited Ambassador of the Netherlands to Mali with residence in Dakar.[68]

  New Zealand 6 March 1983 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 March 1983 when first Mali Ambassador to New Zealand (resident in Peking), Mr. Boubacar Toure presented his credentials to the Governor-General[110]
  Pakistan 1963
  • Mali is accredited to Pakistan from its embassy in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
  Poland 12 May 1961 See Mali–Poland relations
  Russia 14 October 1960 See Mali–Russia relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 October 1960[21]

  Rwanda 6 January 1987 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 January 1987 when ambassador Moktar Kounta El Bakaye presented his credentials to president Juvénal Habyarimana.[113]
  South Korea 27 September 1990

Both countries estadlished diplomatic relations on 27 September 1990[119]

  • Mali is accredited to South Korea from its embassy in Beijing, China.
  Spain 20 August 1964 See Mali–Spain relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 August 1964.[69]

  • Mali has an embassy in Madrid.
  • Spain has an embassy in Bamako.
  Sweden 25 January 1965 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 January 1965, when the first Swedish ambassador to Mali with residence in Abidjan, Karl Henrik Anderson, presented his letters of credentials.[74]In 2024, the Swedish government suspended humanitarian aid to Mali due to the pro-Russian policies adopted by the military government of Assimi Goïta.[192] In response, the government of Mali ordered the expulsion of the Swedish ambassador in Bamako.[193]
  Turkey 17 April 1963
  • Mali has an embassy in Ankara.[194]
  • Turkey has an embassy in Bamako.[194]
  • Trade volume between the two countries was US$57 million in 2019 (Mali's exports/imports: 8.6/48.4 million USD).[194]
  Ukraine 5 November 1992

Diplomatic Severed in 4 August 2024

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 November 1992.[122]

In August 2024, the Malian military government severed diplomatic relations with Ukraine following the Battle of Tinzaouaten.[121]

  United Kingdom 15 March 1961 See Foreign relations of the United Kingdom

The UK established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 15 March 1961[34]

  • Mali does not maintain an embassy in the United Kingdom.
  • The United Kingdom is accredited to Mali through its embassy in Bamako.[195]
  United States 24 September 1960 See Mali–United States relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 September 1960[18]

The bilateral agenda is dominated by efforts to increase broad-based growth, improve health and educational facilities, promote the sustainable use of natural resources, reduce the population growth rate, counter the spread of highly infectious diseases, encourage regional stability, build peacekeeping capabilities, institutionalize respect for human rights, and strengthen democratic institutions in offering good governance. Mali currently is a small market for U.S. trade and investment, but there is potential for considerable growth as its economy expands.[196]

The majority of Mali-US relations and support is centered around military efforts in the form of intelligence, equipment, and financial aid valuing over $588 million, which began in 2017.[197] From 2020 to 2021, US$205 million was also donated in aid through OECD-DAC.[198] This pledged support was announced as conditional on Mali's ability to uphold elections on an agreed timeframe. Although this election timeframe has not been upheld, USAID is currently giving to the distinct initiatives of Agriculture and Economic Growth, Education, Health, Humanitarian Assistance, Multi-Sectoral Nutrition, and Peace, Democracy, and Governance (PDG) Programs.[199] The most recent coups, expulsion of foreign troops, and rejection of intergovernmental foreign aid has made these programs less stable, but has not slowed donations or halted the US support.

  Zambia 2 October 1987 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 October 1987 when has been accredited Ambassador of Mali to Zambia (resident in Cairo) Elbekaye Moctar Kounta.[114]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c Mali country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2005). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  2. ^ "Tuareg rebels declare the independence of Azawad, north of Mali". Al Arabiya. 6 April 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
  3. ^ "AU, US reject Mali rebels' independence declaration – Yahoo! News". Archived from the original on 7 April 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
  4. ^ "G5 Sahel". 7 October 2020.
  5. ^ a b "Take It to the People: A Civil-Military Roadmap for the G5 Sahel | Wilson Center".
  6. ^ "Disjointed force".
  7. ^ "G5 Sahel Joint Force: Briefing and Consultations : What's in Blue : Security Council Report".
  8. ^ "ASG Pobee: "Notwithstanding the support extended to the G5 Sahel, stabilizing the region hinges on aligning our policies and approaches, and on putting the Sahelian people at the forefront of our efforts." | Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs".
  9. ^ "Mali's withdrawal from G5 Sahel, Joint Force 'a setback' for the region | UN News". 19 May 2022.
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  12. ^ Bolarinwa, Joshua O.; Adeleke, Adewole A. (23 December 2023). "ECOWAS and the promotion of democracy in Mali, Guinea and the Gambia". Lagos Historical Review. 20 (1): 159–176.
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  26. ^ Summary of the Yugoslav Press. 1960. p. 34.
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