Deep Convolutional Neural Networks Capabilities for Binary Classification of Polar Mesocyclones in Satellite Mosaics
<p>The input for the deep convolutional neural networks (DCNNs). (<b>a</b>) Trajectories of all mesocyclones (MCs) in Southern Ocean MesoCylones (SOMC) dataset, blue dots mark the point of generation of MC. Snapshots of satellite mosaics for SH for (<b>b</b>) InfraRed (IR) and (<b>c</b>) Water Vapor (WV) channels at 00:00 UTC 02/06/2004. The red/blue squares indicate patches centered over the MCs (red squares) and those having no MC cloudiness signature in (blue) being cut from the mosaics for DCNNs training.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Examples (IR only) of true and false samples for DCNNs training and testing of DCNNs results assessment. 100 × 100 grid points (500 × 500 km) patches of IR mosaics for (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) true samples and false (<b>e</b>–<b>h</b>) samples.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Convolutional neural networks (CNN) #3 and CNN #5 structures. The dots along the “reshaped to vector” line denote elements of the convolutional core output reshaped to a vector, which is the fully-connected classifier input data.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>CNN #4 and CNN #6 structures. The dots along the “reshaped to vector” and “concatenated features vector” lines denote elements of convolutional cores outputs reshaped to vectors, which are, being concatenated to a combined features vector, the fully-connected classifier input data.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Examples of false classified objects, for which (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) IR satellite data is missing or corrupted, (<b>c</b>) the source satellite data is suspected to be corrupted, (<b>d</b>) the source satellite data is realistic, but the classifier has made a mistake.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Confusion matrices and receiver operating characteristic curve for (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) CNN #3 and (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) CNN #5, both with the ensemble averaging approach applied (second-order models); and (<b>e</b>,<b>f</b>) third-order model CNN #1–6 averaged ensemble.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>False negatives (FN, which are missed MCs) in the never-seen by the model testing set with respect to (<b>a</b>) lifecycle stages; (<b>b</b>) diameters; (<b>c</b>) cyclogenesis types; and, (<b>d</b>) types of cloud vortex.</p> "> Figure A1
<p>Confusion matrices for all models and the third-order model CNN #1–6 averaged ensemble, computed on test never-seen subset of data. For each architecture the ensemble averaging technique is applied.</p> "> Figure A2
<p>Receiver operating characteristic curves computed on test never-seen subset of data for all models. For each architecture the ensemble averaging technique is applied.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Data
3. Methodology
3.1. Data Preprocessing
3.2. Formulation of the Problem
3.3. Justification of Using DCNN
3.4. Proposed DCNN Architectures
- CNN #1. This model is built “from scratch” which means we have not used any pre-trained networks. CNN #1 is built in the manner proposed in [35]. We varied sizes of convolutional kernels of each convolutional layers from 3 × 3 to 5 × 5. We also varied sizes of subsampling layers’ receptive fields from 2 × 2 to 3 × 3. For each convolutional layer, we varied the number of convolutional kernels: 8, 16, 32, 64 and 100. The network convolutional core consists of three convolutional layers alternated with subsampling layers. Each pair of convolutional and subsampling layers is followed by a dropout layer. CNN #1 is one-branched, and objects are described by IR 500 × 500 km satellite snapshots only.
- CNN #2. This model is built “from scratch” with two separate branches-for IR and WV data. The convolutional core of each branch is built in the same manner as the convolutional core for CNN #1 and as proposed in [41]. We varied the same parameters of the structure here in the same ranges as for CNN #1.
- CNN #3. This model is built with TL approach. We used VGG16 pre-trained convolutional core to construct this model. None of VGG16 weights were optimized within this model, and only the weights of the FC classifier were trainable. This model is one-branched, and the objects are described by IR 500 × 500 km satellite snapshots only. CNN #3 structure is shown in Figure 3.
- CNN #4. This model is two-branched, and each branch of its convolutional core is built with TL approach, in the same manner as the convolutional core of CNN #3. Input data are IR and WV. None of VGG16 weights of this model in any of the two branches were optimized, and only the weights of the FC classifier were trainable. CNN #4 structure is shown in Figure 4.
- CNN #5 is built with both TL and FT approaches. We built the convolutional core of this model with the use of VGG16 pre-trained network. VGG16 convolutional core consists of five similar blocks of layers. For the CNN #5 we turned the last of these five blocks to be trainable. This model is one-branched, and objects are IR 500 × 500 km satellite snapshots only. CNN #5 structure is shown in Figure 3.
- CNN #6 is two-branched, and branches of its convolutional core are built in the same manner as the convolutional core of CNN #5. For the CNN #6, we turned the last of five blocks of each VGG16 convolutional cores to be trainable. Input data are IR and WV 500 × 500 km satellite snapshots of dataset samples. CNN #6 structure is shown in Figure 4.
3.5. Computational Experiment Design
- Convolutional kernels count for each convolutional layer (only applies to CNN #1 and CNN #2)
- Sizes of convolutional kernels (only applies to CNN #1 and CNN #2)
- Sizes of receptive fields of subsampling layers (only applies to CNN #1 and CNN #2)
4. Results
5. Conclusions and Outlook
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
BCE | binary cross-entropy |
CNN | convolutional neural network |
DA | dataset augmentation technique |
DCNN | deep convolutional neural network |
DL | deep learning |
Do | Dropout technique |
FC | fully-connected |
FCNN | fully-connected neural network |
FT | Fine Tuning |
FNR | false negative rate |
FPR | false positive rate |
IR | infrared |
MC | mesocyclone |
NH | Northern Hemisphere |
PL | polar low |
ROC | receiver operator characteristic |
AUC ROC | area under the curve of receiver operator characteristic |
SH | Southern Hemisphere |
SOMC | Shirshov Institute of Oceanology mesocyclone dataset for Southern Ocean |
TL | Transfer Learning |
TNR | true negative rate |
TPR | true positive rate |
VGG16 | the DCNN proposed by Visual Geometry Group (University of Oxford) [45] |
WV | water vapor |
Appendix A. DCNN Best Practices and Additional Techniques
Appendix A.1. Transfer Learning
Appendix A.2. Fine Tuning
Appendix A.3. Preventing Overfitting
Appendix A.4. Preventing Overfitting with Dropout
Appendix A.5. Preventing Overfitting with Dataset Augmentation
Appendix A.6. Preventing Overfitting with Ensemble Averaging
Appendix A.7. Adjustment of the Probability Threshold
Appendix B. CNN #3 and CNN #5 Best Hyper-Parameters Combinations
Layer (Block) Name | Layer (Block) Nodes Count or Output Dimensions | Connected to |
---|---|---|
Input_data_IR | 100 × 100 | - |
VGG_16_conv_core | see [45]; output: 3 × 3 × 512 | Input_data_IR |
Reshape_1 | 4608 | VGG_16_conv_core |
Dropout_1 | 4608 | Reshape_1 |
FC1 | 1024 | Dropout_1 |
Dropout_2 | 1024 | FC1 |
FC2 | 512 | Dropout_2 |
Dropout_3 | 512 | FC2 |
FC3 | 256 | Dropout_3 |
Dropout_4 | 256 | FC3 |
FC4 | 128 | Dropout_4 |
FC_output | 1 | FC3 |
Appendix C. Detailed Performance Metrics of all DCNN Models
Appendix D. Detailed False Negative Rates of the Third-Order Ensemble-Averaging Model
Cyclogenesis Type | Testing Set, Objects Number | False Negatives, Objects Number | FN Relative Rate, % |
---|---|---|---|
Pressure trough | 841 | 23 | 2.7 |
Centre of mid-latitude cyclone | 147 | 2 | 1.4 |
Low-gradient pressure field | 48 | 2 | 4.2 |
Cold-air outbreak | 45 | 4 | 8.9 |
Low-pressure post-occlusion zone | 84 | 4 | 4.8 |
High pressure gradient field | 61 | 4 | 6.6 |
Orography-induced cyclogenesis | 27 | 4 | 14.8 |
Cloud Vortex Type | Testing Set, Objects Number | False Negatives, Objects Number | FN Relative Rate, % |
---|---|---|---|
Comma cloud | 1006 | 33 | 3.3 |
Spiral cloud | 59 | 5 | 8.5 |
Comma-to-spiral | 177 | 5 | 2.3 |
Merry-go-round | 11 | 0 | 0.0 |
MC Stage | Testing Set, Objects Number | False Negatives, Objects Number | FN Relative Rate, % |
---|---|---|---|
Incipient | 352 | 16 | 4.6 |
Mature | 574 | 23 | 4.0 |
Dissipating | 327 | 4 | 1.2 |
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True Samples | False Samples | Total Samples | |
---|---|---|---|
IR | 6177 (55%) | 5012 (45%) | 11,189 (100%) |
WV | 6177 (55%) | 5012 (45%) | 11,189 (100%) |
Model Name | IR | WV | BA | TL | FT | Do | DA | AsEA | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CNN #1 | X | - | X | - | - | X | X | 86.89 ± 1.1% | 89.3% | 0.381 |
CNN #2 | X | X | X | - | - | X | X | 94.1 ± 1.4% | 96.3% | 0.272 |
CNN #3 | X | - | X | X | - | X | X | 95.8 ± 0.1% | 96.6% | 0.556 |
CNN #4 | X | X | X | X | - | X | X | 95.5 ± 0.3% | 96.3% | 0.526 |
CNN #5 | X | - | X | X | X | X | X | 96 ± 0.2% | 96.6% | 0.5715 |
CNN #6 | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | 95.7 ± 0.2% | 96.4% | 0.656 |
Third-order model CNN #1–6 averaged ensemble | 97% | 0.598 |
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Share and Cite
Krinitskiy, M.; Verezemskaya, P.; Grashchenkov, K.; Tilinina, N.; Gulev, S.; Lazzara, M. Deep Convolutional Neural Networks Capabilities for Binary Classification of Polar Mesocyclones in Satellite Mosaics. Atmosphere 2018, 9, 426. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9110426
Krinitskiy M, Verezemskaya P, Grashchenkov K, Tilinina N, Gulev S, Lazzara M. Deep Convolutional Neural Networks Capabilities for Binary Classification of Polar Mesocyclones in Satellite Mosaics. Atmosphere. 2018; 9(11):426. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9110426
Chicago/Turabian StyleKrinitskiy, Mikhail, Polina Verezemskaya, Kirill Grashchenkov, Natalia Tilinina, Sergey Gulev, and Matthew Lazzara. 2018. "Deep Convolutional Neural Networks Capabilities for Binary Classification of Polar Mesocyclones in Satellite Mosaics" Atmosphere 9, no. 11: 426. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9110426