Iurii Polidovych
I live in Donetsk in Ukraine, and work in archaeological department of the Region museum. I received my Ph.D. degree from the Institute of Archaeology of the National Academy of Sciences of the Ukraine in 2001.
My research focuses on Scythian archaeology, culture, religion, and especially Scythian animal style (from Danube to Northern China) and its interconnection with art of the ancient Greek, Near East, ancient China.
My research focuses on Scythian archaeology, culture, religion, and especially Scythian animal style (from Danube to Northern China) and its interconnection with art of the ancient Greek, Near East, ancient China.
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SCYTHIAN PLATE BRACELETS OF THE 4th century BC
Scythian wide plate bracelets made of gold and silver are analyzed in the paper. Such items were distributed mainly in the steppes of the Dnieper region in the first — third quarters of the 4th century BC. 37 bracelets are known from 15 jewelry sets
and 1 unknown assemblage. All items have bent long edges and central relief ribs — one (31 items) or two (6 items). Plate bracelets were worn by men and women, they were passed on to children as an inheritance. The men-rulers (from Solokha and Kul-Oba barrows) were buried with 5—10 such bracelets.
In the side tomb of the Solokha barrow, the earliest bracelets (first quarter of the 4th century BC) belonging to the Scythian ruler were found. It is assumed that later these items became a sign of belonging to the circle of his descendants or other persons of the elite of Scythian society. Our knowledge is limited by the fact that the largest Scythian mounds of the 4th century BC were looted (the Chmyreva Mohyla, Chortomlyk, Oguz, Kozel, Tovsta Mohyla and others barrows). And we don’t know for sure whether the Scythian rulers wore such bracelets. However, most of the bracelets
were found in elite barrows. This is the burial of the woman and two warriors from the Chortomlyk barrow, the woman and the child from the Tovsta Mohyla barrow, the man and the woman from the Kul-Oba barrow, the man from barrow 8 of the Five Brothers group. The jewelry sets that belonged to these persons are distinguished by their extraordinary splendor. This is «golden» clothing, exquisite neck and chest adornments, earrings, rings. Women’s jewelry sets from the Deev and 1st Mordvinovski barrows show the special status of their owners. Perhaps they were priestesses of the Scythian fertility goddess Api. Findings of plate bracelets in the burials of children (from the Tovsta Moghyla and the Auly barrows) and a teenager (from the barrow 10 near the Mala Lepetykha village) probably indicate the passing of these products as an inheritance.
BARROWS OF SCYTHIAN AGE NEAR VELYKI BUDKY VILLAGE IN SULA
RIVER BASIN: ARCHIVAL DATA AND MUSEUM COLLECTIONS
The paper is focused on the barrows of the Scythian Age, excavated near Velyki Budky village in Sula River basin (Romny district, Sumy region). In the last decades of the 19th and early 20th centuries they were excavated by Serhii Mazaraki, Nikolai Brandenburg, Dmitrii Samokvasov, Ivan Lynnychenko and, possibly, Vikentii Khvoika. According to the survey of kurgans in 1927, Mykhailo Semenchyk wrote that all the kurgans
near the Velyki Budky village were excavated. These are several dozen kurgans located on the right bank of the Sula River and grouped into 4 groups. Three groups are localized to the east of the village: group I «Kapitalovshchyna» — on the plateau; group II «Provallia» was concentrated on a small cape at the confluence of the Khmelivka River with the Sula River; group III extended along the right bank of the Sula River. Most of the kurgans of these groups are located inside a large area surrounded by a rampart and a moat. The origin and dating of the defensive structures is unknown. Group IV «Popova Kaliuzha» was located west of the Velyki Budky village. The information about 11 excavated kurgans is available. It is preserved in the first publications and the inventory book of the Kyiv Art, Industrial and Scientific Museum (now the National Museum of the History of Ukraine). We can also ascertain the data on 6 barrows based on entries in the inventory book. The kurgan No. 1, excavated in 1897 by Sergii Mazaraki, sticks out among others due to the completeness of the data and the wealth of the items. However, much information about excavations and items is inaccurate and confusing. It is possible that further research will make a history of studies of kurgans near the Velyki Budky village more understandable, and the information about items is more reliable.
THE LION HEAD-SHAPED BRONZE PLATES FROM SCYTHIAN
ASSEMBLAGES OF THE FOREST-STEPPE OF DNIPRO RIGHT BANK
Two sets of bronze plates originating from two assemblages of the Dnipro Right Bank forest-steppe are studied in the paper. The set from the barrow No. 4 (fig. 1) near Beresniahy village includes the image of a lion head full-face (10 units) and in profile (2 units).
The full-face view of the head is unique and has no analogues. Paired profile plates have a complete analogue in a pair of plates, originating from the barrow near the Stebliv village (Serhii Crichton collection). Presumably,
both sets were made by the same master from the same molds. The researchers date the barrow No. 4 near Beresniahy village within the second quarter — the mid5th century BC. The plates with the image of the lion head from this assemblage are the earliest images of this predator, made in traditions close to the Scythian «animal style». The image of the head of a cat family predator on bronze plates from barrows No. 400 and
401 near Zhuravka village on the Dnipro Right Bank is earlier and may have been the source of the artistic motif. Image of the predator head from barrow No. 491 near Makiivka village is also earlier. It is made in the
traditions of the Scythian «animal style». The images on a gold plate from barrow No. 3 near Orlyk village on the Dnipro Left Bank and on bronze plates from barrow No. 32 of the necropolis of Greek city of Nymphaeon, Eastern Crimea are similar to the lion heads from Beresniahy and Stebliv. The most eastern is a bronze plate from the Voskresensk hillfort in the Southern Ural. Another version of the motif is presented on bronze plates from barrow No. 32 of the Aksyonovsky-I cemetery in Lower Volga Region and from the Ananino cemetery in the Volga-Kama region.
OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF THE HISTORY OF UKRAINE
The article is dedicated to two bronze plates of the Scythian period from the collection of the National Museum of the History of Ukraine. They came to the museum from the collection of Serhii Kreiton in the spring of 1920. Serhii Kreiton was a military man, one of the founders of the Kyiv Military Historical Museum, which existed in 1911–1919. His archaeological collection is probably associated with this museum, which included items from the Stone Age to the Middle Ages. The plaques represent figured images of isolated rear parts of animals. One of them (inventory number B 2279; fig. 1, 1) is a part of an ungulate, the second (inventory number B 2587; fig. 2, 1) is a part of a predatory creature. They have certain analogies that allow dating them to the second half of the 5th century BCE. Both plaques were part of the decoration of a horse’s bridle. They were part of a set of items that represented a detachable image of a fantastic animal.
The article examines the gold plates that decorated the gorytos found by S. A. Mazaraki in 1897 in the Scythian mound No. 1 near the village of Vovkivtsi (Romny Region). On the basis of the analysis, it is concluded that the plate with the image of a lion could have been cut from the upholstery of the Chortomlyk type gorytos or made according to the same matrix. Plates depicting the scene of a predator attacking a goat are original and do not have direct analogies, but they are in the same thematic circle of images originating from the Southern Urals, the Kuban, and the Dnieper Region. The plate with a plant motif is an original Scythian product, which based on a widespread antique image of a palmette. A conclusion is made about the purposeful selection of plates that corresponded to certain mythological ideas.
Mysterious ritual objects of the Scythians: searching the answers
The paper is devoted to the analysis of versions of the probable use of gold cone-shaped objects that were in use from the last decades of the 6th centuries BC to the end of the 4th centuries BC. They are differ in size (base diameter varies from 5 to 19.8 cm, height — from 4 to 18 cm) and some shape features. At the same time, they are characterized by hollowness, a wide round base, which is usually 1.2—2.0 times greater than the height, and the obligatory presence (with two excep tions) of a small round hole in the «upper» part. All of them are made of gold or covered with this precious metal. Currently 26 such objects are known, and they originate from 19 assemblages from the Northern Pon tic and Azov Sea regions (12), the Middle Don (1), the North Caucasus (2) and the Southern Urals (4).
The context of finding objects is considered in detail. It is concluded that they were mostly worn attached to the gorytos. This is also confirmed by the images on the stone sculpture. It is believed that the cones could have been a decoration of the gorytos or a sign of prestige. But, probably, the purpose of these items was different. Some of the cones were found in ritual complexes — hiding places within the burial chamber or next to the burial.
Researchers have put the different versions of the possible functional purpose of cone-shaped objects: ritual objects, part of a ceremonial headdress; a cap for tassels that were tied to the horse’s neck; pommel of a standard or staff; «case» for storing scalps; censer; ritual utensils. But most versions are based on arbitrary assumptions that contradict both the archaeological context of the find and the general cultural context.
From all versions, it is probable that the majority of the cones were used as ritual vessels for sacrifice by pouring out liquid. In several cases, these objects were found in caches together with ritual utensils. Other examples of ritual vessels with holes in the bottom are known. Some objects have a decoration in the form of a rosette (it surrounds the hole) which is placed only at the bottom of the bowls. It is possible that Herodotus’ information about the bowls that the Scythians wore on their belts is related to these objects. They could be used for sacrifices to «Scythian Ares», which we also know about from Herodotus’ «History».
«GOLD» LASHES OF THE SCYTHIAN RULERS
Annotation. The article analyzes the finds of lashes in the Scythian-Saka complexes. These were products with a predominantly wooden handle and a leather whip strap with one or two tails. In some cases, the handles were supplemented with various bone or metal elements. The burial complexes of the nobility stand out, where lashes were found, the handles of which were decorated with gold ribbons or other gold details.
This tradition appears in the early Scythian time and spreads widely in the 4th century BC, when the social differentiation of society becomes very significant. At the same time, decorating the lash with gold was much more often used in the western regions of the Scythian-Saka world. Particular attention is paid to the golden decoration of the lash from the Tovsta Mogyla kurgan in the Steppe Black Sea region. The context of
finding does not allow us to say that the "golden" lashes were endowed with any ritual functions. First of all, they can be designated as attributes of prestige and power, which stood out especially thanks to the gold decor.
IRANIAN AND ANCIENT GREEK MYTHOLOGY
Yu. Polidovych, E. Velychko
he gold plates adorning women’s headdresses were found in the Scythian
elite mounds of the 4th century BC Tovsta Mohyla and Chortomlyk. The
plates recreate the same plots: the scene of two griffins attacking a deer and the confrontation between a fantastic winged boar and a predator resembling a lion. The image of a winged boar is rare in Scythian times. In addition to the above, a small series of images of a protome of a wild boar with wings is known. These are gold plates originating from the 2nd Seven-Brotherhood mound (Kuban region) of the second half of the 5th century BC and Kul-Oba mound (Crimea) in the middle of the 4th century BC. Researchers have suggested that these images are borrowed from Greek coins of the second half of the 6th – 5th centuries BC. Coins with the embossed image of a protome of a wild boar with wings were found in several regions of ancient Greece: on the islands of Rhodes, Lesbos, Samos, in the cities of the west coast of Asia Minor Cyzicus and Klazomenai, and in the state of Lydia. It is noteworthy that these are the regions that were in contact with the Persian state of the Achaemenids. The image of a winged boar is not known in Greek mythology, and the boar in myths often appears as a cruel creature of Chaos, with which the heroes come into battle. Instead, in the ancient Iranian tradition, the boar is one of the incarnations of the god of war and victory Verethragna.
He, in particular, is mentioned in Yashts. The description of the boar does
not mention the wings, but speaks of its free movement in space. The notion of such a movement could have influenced the appearance of images of a winged boar. Thus, the image of a winged boar on the coins of Greek cities appeared under a certain influence of the Iranian tradition. The Scythians also represented the god of war and victory (known only by the Greek name – Ares) as a boar. This is evidenced by the images on the scabbards of swords and gorytos. And so the image of a winged boar, most likely, was a reproduction of this god. The scene of the confrontation between a wild boar and a predator on plates from the Tovsta Mohyla mound and Chortomlyk mound is located next to the scene of the griffins attacking the deer. Such scenes reproduced the idea of sacrifice for the sake of future revival. The scene of the confrontation may also be related to the idea of overcoming death and the triumph of life.
SCYTHIAN PLATE BRACELETS OF THE 4th century BC
Scythian wide plate bracelets made of gold and silver are analyzed in the paper. Such items were distributed mainly in the steppes of the Dnieper region in the first — third quarters of the 4th century BC. 37 bracelets are known from 15 jewelry sets
and 1 unknown assemblage. All items have bent long edges and central relief ribs — one (31 items) or two (6 items). Plate bracelets were worn by men and women, they were passed on to children as an inheritance. The men-rulers (from Solokha and Kul-Oba barrows) were buried with 5—10 such bracelets.
In the side tomb of the Solokha barrow, the earliest bracelets (first quarter of the 4th century BC) belonging to the Scythian ruler were found. It is assumed that later these items became a sign of belonging to the circle of his descendants or other persons of the elite of Scythian society. Our knowledge is limited by the fact that the largest Scythian mounds of the 4th century BC were looted (the Chmyreva Mohyla, Chortomlyk, Oguz, Kozel, Tovsta Mohyla and others barrows). And we don’t know for sure whether the Scythian rulers wore such bracelets. However, most of the bracelets
were found in elite barrows. This is the burial of the woman and two warriors from the Chortomlyk barrow, the woman and the child from the Tovsta Mohyla barrow, the man and the woman from the Kul-Oba barrow, the man from barrow 8 of the Five Brothers group. The jewelry sets that belonged to these persons are distinguished by their extraordinary splendor. This is «golden» clothing, exquisite neck and chest adornments, earrings, rings. Women’s jewelry sets from the Deev and 1st Mordvinovski barrows show the special status of their owners. Perhaps they were priestesses of the Scythian fertility goddess Api. Findings of plate bracelets in the burials of children (from the Tovsta Moghyla and the Auly barrows) and a teenager (from the barrow 10 near the Mala Lepetykha village) probably indicate the passing of these products as an inheritance.
BARROWS OF SCYTHIAN AGE NEAR VELYKI BUDKY VILLAGE IN SULA
RIVER BASIN: ARCHIVAL DATA AND MUSEUM COLLECTIONS
The paper is focused on the barrows of the Scythian Age, excavated near Velyki Budky village in Sula River basin (Romny district, Sumy region). In the last decades of the 19th and early 20th centuries they were excavated by Serhii Mazaraki, Nikolai Brandenburg, Dmitrii Samokvasov, Ivan Lynnychenko and, possibly, Vikentii Khvoika. According to the survey of kurgans in 1927, Mykhailo Semenchyk wrote that all the kurgans
near the Velyki Budky village were excavated. These are several dozen kurgans located on the right bank of the Sula River and grouped into 4 groups. Three groups are localized to the east of the village: group I «Kapitalovshchyna» — on the plateau; group II «Provallia» was concentrated on a small cape at the confluence of the Khmelivka River with the Sula River; group III extended along the right bank of the Sula River. Most of the kurgans of these groups are located inside a large area surrounded by a rampart and a moat. The origin and dating of the defensive structures is unknown. Group IV «Popova Kaliuzha» was located west of the Velyki Budky village. The information about 11 excavated kurgans is available. It is preserved in the first publications and the inventory book of the Kyiv Art, Industrial and Scientific Museum (now the National Museum of the History of Ukraine). We can also ascertain the data on 6 barrows based on entries in the inventory book. The kurgan No. 1, excavated in 1897 by Sergii Mazaraki, sticks out among others due to the completeness of the data and the wealth of the items. However, much information about excavations and items is inaccurate and confusing. It is possible that further research will make a history of studies of kurgans near the Velyki Budky village more understandable, and the information about items is more reliable.
THE LION HEAD-SHAPED BRONZE PLATES FROM SCYTHIAN
ASSEMBLAGES OF THE FOREST-STEPPE OF DNIPRO RIGHT BANK
Two sets of bronze plates originating from two assemblages of the Dnipro Right Bank forest-steppe are studied in the paper. The set from the barrow No. 4 (fig. 1) near Beresniahy village includes the image of a lion head full-face (10 units) and in profile (2 units).
The full-face view of the head is unique and has no analogues. Paired profile plates have a complete analogue in a pair of plates, originating from the barrow near the Stebliv village (Serhii Crichton collection). Presumably,
both sets were made by the same master from the same molds. The researchers date the barrow No. 4 near Beresniahy village within the second quarter — the mid5th century BC. The plates with the image of the lion head from this assemblage are the earliest images of this predator, made in traditions close to the Scythian «animal style». The image of the head of a cat family predator on bronze plates from barrows No. 400 and
401 near Zhuravka village on the Dnipro Right Bank is earlier and may have been the source of the artistic motif. Image of the predator head from barrow No. 491 near Makiivka village is also earlier. It is made in the
traditions of the Scythian «animal style». The images on a gold plate from barrow No. 3 near Orlyk village on the Dnipro Left Bank and on bronze plates from barrow No. 32 of the necropolis of Greek city of Nymphaeon, Eastern Crimea are similar to the lion heads from Beresniahy and Stebliv. The most eastern is a bronze plate from the Voskresensk hillfort in the Southern Ural. Another version of the motif is presented on bronze plates from barrow No. 32 of the Aksyonovsky-I cemetery in Lower Volga Region and from the Ananino cemetery in the Volga-Kama region.
OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF THE HISTORY OF UKRAINE
The article is dedicated to two bronze plates of the Scythian period from the collection of the National Museum of the History of Ukraine. They came to the museum from the collection of Serhii Kreiton in the spring of 1920. Serhii Kreiton was a military man, one of the founders of the Kyiv Military Historical Museum, which existed in 1911–1919. His archaeological collection is probably associated with this museum, which included items from the Stone Age to the Middle Ages. The plaques represent figured images of isolated rear parts of animals. One of them (inventory number B 2279; fig. 1, 1) is a part of an ungulate, the second (inventory number B 2587; fig. 2, 1) is a part of a predatory creature. They have certain analogies that allow dating them to the second half of the 5th century BCE. Both plaques were part of the decoration of a horse’s bridle. They were part of a set of items that represented a detachable image of a fantastic animal.
The article examines the gold plates that decorated the gorytos found by S. A. Mazaraki in 1897 in the Scythian mound No. 1 near the village of Vovkivtsi (Romny Region). On the basis of the analysis, it is concluded that the plate with the image of a lion could have been cut from the upholstery of the Chortomlyk type gorytos or made according to the same matrix. Plates depicting the scene of a predator attacking a goat are original and do not have direct analogies, but they are in the same thematic circle of images originating from the Southern Urals, the Kuban, and the Dnieper Region. The plate with a plant motif is an original Scythian product, which based on a widespread antique image of a palmette. A conclusion is made about the purposeful selection of plates that corresponded to certain mythological ideas.
Mysterious ritual objects of the Scythians: searching the answers
The paper is devoted to the analysis of versions of the probable use of gold cone-shaped objects that were in use from the last decades of the 6th centuries BC to the end of the 4th centuries BC. They are differ in size (base diameter varies from 5 to 19.8 cm, height — from 4 to 18 cm) and some shape features. At the same time, they are characterized by hollowness, a wide round base, which is usually 1.2—2.0 times greater than the height, and the obligatory presence (with two excep tions) of a small round hole in the «upper» part. All of them are made of gold or covered with this precious metal. Currently 26 such objects are known, and they originate from 19 assemblages from the Northern Pon tic and Azov Sea regions (12), the Middle Don (1), the North Caucasus (2) and the Southern Urals (4).
The context of finding objects is considered in detail. It is concluded that they were mostly worn attached to the gorytos. This is also confirmed by the images on the stone sculpture. It is believed that the cones could have been a decoration of the gorytos or a sign of prestige. But, probably, the purpose of these items was different. Some of the cones were found in ritual complexes — hiding places within the burial chamber or next to the burial.
Researchers have put the different versions of the possible functional purpose of cone-shaped objects: ritual objects, part of a ceremonial headdress; a cap for tassels that were tied to the horse’s neck; pommel of a standard or staff; «case» for storing scalps; censer; ritual utensils. But most versions are based on arbitrary assumptions that contradict both the archaeological context of the find and the general cultural context.
From all versions, it is probable that the majority of the cones were used as ritual vessels for sacrifice by pouring out liquid. In several cases, these objects were found in caches together with ritual utensils. Other examples of ritual vessels with holes in the bottom are known. Some objects have a decoration in the form of a rosette (it surrounds the hole) which is placed only at the bottom of the bowls. It is possible that Herodotus’ information about the bowls that the Scythians wore on their belts is related to these objects. They could be used for sacrifices to «Scythian Ares», which we also know about from Herodotus’ «History».
«GOLD» LASHES OF THE SCYTHIAN RULERS
Annotation. The article analyzes the finds of lashes in the Scythian-Saka complexes. These were products with a predominantly wooden handle and a leather whip strap with one or two tails. In some cases, the handles were supplemented with various bone or metal elements. The burial complexes of the nobility stand out, where lashes were found, the handles of which were decorated with gold ribbons or other gold details.
This tradition appears in the early Scythian time and spreads widely in the 4th century BC, when the social differentiation of society becomes very significant. At the same time, decorating the lash with gold was much more often used in the western regions of the Scythian-Saka world. Particular attention is paid to the golden decoration of the lash from the Tovsta Mogyla kurgan in the Steppe Black Sea region. The context of
finding does not allow us to say that the "golden" lashes were endowed with any ritual functions. First of all, they can be designated as attributes of prestige and power, which stood out especially thanks to the gold decor.
IRANIAN AND ANCIENT GREEK MYTHOLOGY
Yu. Polidovych, E. Velychko
he gold plates adorning women’s headdresses were found in the Scythian
elite mounds of the 4th century BC Tovsta Mohyla and Chortomlyk. The
plates recreate the same plots: the scene of two griffins attacking a deer and the confrontation between a fantastic winged boar and a predator resembling a lion. The image of a winged boar is rare in Scythian times. In addition to the above, a small series of images of a protome of a wild boar with wings is known. These are gold plates originating from the 2nd Seven-Brotherhood mound (Kuban region) of the second half of the 5th century BC and Kul-Oba mound (Crimea) in the middle of the 4th century BC. Researchers have suggested that these images are borrowed from Greek coins of the second half of the 6th – 5th centuries BC. Coins with the embossed image of a protome of a wild boar with wings were found in several regions of ancient Greece: on the islands of Rhodes, Lesbos, Samos, in the cities of the west coast of Asia Minor Cyzicus and Klazomenai, and in the state of Lydia. It is noteworthy that these are the regions that were in contact with the Persian state of the Achaemenids. The image of a winged boar is not known in Greek mythology, and the boar in myths often appears as a cruel creature of Chaos, with which the heroes come into battle. Instead, in the ancient Iranian tradition, the boar is one of the incarnations of the god of war and victory Verethragna.
He, in particular, is mentioned in Yashts. The description of the boar does
not mention the wings, but speaks of its free movement in space. The notion of such a movement could have influenced the appearance of images of a winged boar. Thus, the image of a winged boar on the coins of Greek cities appeared under a certain influence of the Iranian tradition. The Scythians also represented the god of war and victory (known only by the Greek name – Ares) as a boar. This is evidenced by the images on the scabbards of swords and gorytos. And so the image of a winged boar, most likely, was a reproduction of this god. The scene of the confrontation between a wild boar and a predator on plates from the Tovsta Mohyla mound and Chortomlyk mound is located next to the scene of the griffins attacking the deer. Such scenes reproduced the idea of sacrifice for the sake of future revival. The scene of the confrontation may also be related to the idea of overcoming death and the triumph of life.