Material Activity in Debris Flow Watersheds Pre- and Post-Strong Earthquake: A Case Study from the Wenchuan Earthquake Epicenter
<p>A focus on our study area, which is primarily situated between two major faults: the Maoxian-Wenchuan fault (pink) and the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault (red), with yellow stars marking the location of the Wenchuan earthquake epicenter. Mapped debris flows (DF) are depicted in light green with grey boundary lines, numbered sequentially. The main trunk of the MinJiang River and its major tributaries are highlighted in blue and all mapped sub-catchments flow into this river. Key locations such as Yinxing and Yingxiu are indicated with green dots. Elevation, represented with a gradient color scale ranging from 606 m above sea level (light brown) to 4560 m above sea level (dark brown), is sourced from ALOS-PALSAR RTC with a resolution of 30 m.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Example of multi-temporal interpretation. (<b>a</b>) Co-seismic landslides triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake; (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>,<b>e</b>) post-earthquake landslides; (<b>c</b>,<b>f</b>) active channel materials.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Schematic calculation of d<sub>g</sub>. D represents the horizontal projection length from the centroid of each interpreted material to the tangent at the gully outlet, while L denotes the maximum horizontal projection length from the upstream watershed divide to the tangent at the gully outlet.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>A demonstration of landslide and channel material activity within the watershed. (<b>a</b>) Google satellite imagery of the demonstration area captured in July 2008, December 2014, and October 2019. (<b>b</b>) Photograph documenting the 2015 field investigation of the landslide identified by the purple arrow. This photo was taken by the author. (<b>c</b>) Photograph documenting the 2015 field investigation of the landslide identified by the yellow arrow. This photo was taken by the author.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Classification of interpreted active landslides based on their connectivity to the channel, illustrated with an example from Xiaojia Gully.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) Interpretation across different time periods shows active landslides, including new and remobilized landslides, mapped in blue and red, respectively. Active channel materials are mapped in orange. (<b>b</b>) Variations in the area of active landslides relative to rainfall are shown. Red dots represent active landslide areas, while blue bar charts depict annual rainfall during the flood season. (<b>c</b>) Variations in the area of active channel materials relative to rainfall are shown. Yellow dots represent active channel material areas, while blue bar charts depict annual rainfall during the flood season.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Dynamics of active material relative to area across different periods.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Active landslides connected to channels over various time periods, with interpretation showing active connected landslides mapped in purple. The maps illustrate the evolution of the area of active connected landslides from 2005 to 2020, highlighting significant increases post-2008 due to the Wenchuan earthquake.</p> "> Figure 9
<p>(<b>a</b>) The relationship between active landslides and actively connected landslides. (<b>b</b>) The relationship between actively connected landslides and active channel materials.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Classification outcomes of debris flows. (<b>a</b>) Utilizing the active channel material area from <a href="#water-16-02284-t003" class="html-table">Table 3</a> and the natural breaks method, the activity levels of 31 debris flow watersheds were categorized into four groups: extremely active (1.01–3 km<sup>2</sup>), highly active (0.33–1.01 km<sup>2</sup>), moderately active (0.12–0.33 km<sup>2</sup>), and lowly active (0–0.12 km<sup>2</sup>). (<b>b</b>) Utilizing the number of post-earthquake events from <a href="#water-16-02284-t003" class="html-table">Table 3</a> and the natural breaks method, post-earthquake debris flow event counts for 31 watersheds were categorized into four activity levels: extremely active (>6 events), highly active (3–6 events), moderately active (1–3 events), and lowly active (1 event). (<b>c</b>) Utilizing the occurrence of events post-2018 from <a href="#water-16-02284-t003" class="html-table">Table 3</a>, post-earthquake debris flow event sustainability levels were categorized into two groups: relatively strong (Yes) and relatively weak (No).</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area
3. Data and Methods
3.1. Remote Sensing Images and Other Data
3.2. Multi-Temporal Inventorying
3.3. Distance Coefficient
3.4. Landslide Connectivity
4. Results
4.1. Multi-Temporal Analysis of Active Material
4.2. Material Transportation
4.3. Supply of Material Sources for Debris Flows
- (1)
- The Relationship Between Active Landslides and Actively Connected Landslides
- (2)
- The Relationship Between Actively Connected Landslides and Active Channel Materials
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Data Types | Source | Acquisition Time | Precision | Application |
---|---|---|---|---|
Landslide interpretation | [34] | 2005, 2007, 2008, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2018 | vector | Basic data |
Remote sensing image | Spot 5 | 2008.07 | 1 m | Correct and categorize the basic interpretation data and establish a database for interpretation of remobilized, new landslides and active channel material. |
Google Earth | 2011.04 | 0.5 m | ||
Pleiades | 2013.09 | 2 m | ||
Spot 6 | 2015.04 | 1 m | ||
Sentinel-2B | 2019.04 | 10 m | ||
2020.08 | 10 m | |||
DSM | ALOS-PALSAR RTC | / | 30 m | For river network and watershed boundary extraction and topographic reference for interpretation. |
Precipitation | Global Precipitation Climate Center (GPCC) | 2000–2020 (monthly) | 1 mm | To analyze the relationship between material activity and rainfall in the study area. |
Year | New Landslide | Remobilized Landslide | Active Channel Material | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Area (km2) | Number (km2) | Area (km2) | Number (km2) | Area (km2) | |
2005 | 0.21 | 61 | / | / | 0.24 |
2007 | 0.49 | 38 | / | / | 0.01 |
2008 | 64.32 | 4352 | / | / | 4.25 |
2011 | 1.92 | 358 | 13.97 | 1945 | 5.95 |
2013 | 1.00 | 162 | 4.15 | 586 | 3.33 |
2015 | 0.13 | 6 | 0.59 | 92 | 2.42 |
2017 | 0.03 | 2 | 0.12 | 13 | 0.10 |
2018 | 0.01 | 3 | 0.05 | 13 | 0.20 |
2020 | 0.75 | 23 | 7.21 | 202 | 2.61 |
Gully | Active Channel Material Area | Number of Post-Earthquake Events | Occurrence of Events Post-2018 | Gully | Active Channel Material Area | Number of Post-Earthquake Events | Occurrence of Events Post-2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DF01 | 0.47 | 3 | No | DF17 | 0.76 | 6 | Yes |
DF02 | 0.12 | 3 | No | DF18 | 3.00 | 4 | Yes |
DF03 | 0.03 | 1 | No | DF19 | 0.33 | 11 | Yes |
DF04 | 0 | 1 | No | DF20 | 0.09 | 2 | No |
DF05 | 0.50 | 1 | Yes | DF21 | 1.01 | 4 | Yes |
DF06 | 0.33 | 6 | No | DF22 | 0.26 | 3 | No |
DF07 | 0.22 | 2 | No | DF23 | 0.31 | 1 | Yes |
DF08 | 0.03 | 1 | No | DF24 | 0.04 | 1 | No |
DF09 | 0.05 | 1 | No | DF25 | 0 | 1 | No |
DF10 | 2.40 | 1 | Yes | DF26 | 0.03 | 1 | No |
DF11 | 0.07 | 1 | No | DF27 | 0.56 | 1 | No |
DF12 | 0.09 | 1 | No | DF28 | 0.49 | 2 | Yes |
DF13 | 0.67 | 2 | No | DF29 | 0.60 | 2 | Yes |
DF14 | 2.33 | 4 | Yes | DF30 | 0.07 | 1 | No |
DF15 | 2.16 | 2 | Yes | DF31 | 0.20 | 2 | Yes |
DF16 | 1.88 | 3 | Yes |
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Yang, Y.; Chen, M.; Cai, Y.; Tang, C.; Huang, W.; Xia, C. Material Activity in Debris Flow Watersheds Pre- and Post-Strong Earthquake: A Case Study from the Wenchuan Earthquake Epicenter. Water 2024, 16, 2284. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162284
Yang Y, Chen M, Cai Y, Tang C, Huang W, Xia C. Material Activity in Debris Flow Watersheds Pre- and Post-Strong Earthquake: A Case Study from the Wenchuan Earthquake Epicenter. Water. 2024; 16(16):2284. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162284
Chicago/Turabian StyleYang, Yu, Ming Chen, Yinghua Cai, Chenxiao Tang, Wenli Huang, and Chenhao Xia. 2024. "Material Activity in Debris Flow Watersheds Pre- and Post-Strong Earthquake: A Case Study from the Wenchuan Earthquake Epicenter" Water 16, no. 16: 2284. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16162284