Pesticide Contamination of Potable Water and Its Correlation with Water Quality in Different Regions of Punjab, Pakistan
<p>A map showing the sampling sites in different districts across the three major areas/regions selected for the study. Fifteen major districts were selected for the sampling of groundwater for the analysis of pesticide residues.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Total annual precipitation (whole year) and mean monthly temperature (during the sampling months of January and July) in 2018 across the 15 districts of Punjab.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Comparison of different pesticide residues in water samples collected from different regions of Punjab province. Bars present means ± standard errors. The bars sharing the same letters in each chart did not differ significantly. Thiamethoxam = TM, imidacloprid = IC, thiacloprid = TC, acetamiprid = AM, fipronil = FN, triazophos = TA, profenofos = PF, chlorpyrifos = CP, carbyl = CL, cypermethrin = CM.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>The quantities of (<b>A</b>) thiamethoxam, (<b>B</b>) imidacloprid, and (<b>C</b>) thiacloprid residues in water from different regions of Punjab during the summer and winter seasons. Bars represent means ± standard errors. Bars sharing the same letters in each chart do not differ significantly.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>The quantities of (<b>A</b>) acetamiprid, (<b>B</b>) fipronil, and (<b>C</b>) triazophos residues in water from different regions of Punjab during the summer and winter seasons. Bars represent means ± standard errors. Bars sharing the same letters in each chart do not differ significantly.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>The quantities of (<b>A</b>) profenofos, (<b>B</b>) chlorpyrifos, (<b>C</b>) carbaryl, and (<b>D</b>) cypermethrin residues in water from different regions of Punjab during the summer and winter seasons. Bars represent means ± standard errors. Bars sharing the same letters in each chart do not differ significantly.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>A principal component analysis plot presenting the correlations among different study parameters in different regions.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Selection of the Study Area
2.2. Determination of Water Quality Parameters
2.3. Extraction of Pesticide Residues from Samples
2.4. Evaporation of Water Extract
2.5. Analyses of Pesticide Residues via High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
2.6. Sample and Standard Preparation
2.7. Preparation of Mobile Phase
2.8. Analyses of Samples
2.9. Statistical Analyses
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Water Quality Parameters (pH, EC, and Temperature) during the Summer and Winter Season
3.2. Screening of Water for Pesticide Residues
3.3. Pesticide Residues of Selected Pesticides in Water from Different Regions of Punjab
3.3.1. Neonicotinoids (Thiamethoxam, Imidacloprid, Thiacloprid, Fipronil, Acetamiprid) Pesticide Residues in Water
3.3.2. Organophosphates (Triazophos, Profenofos, Chlorpyrifos) Pesticide Residues in Water
3.3.3. Carbamates (Carbaryl, Carbofuran, and Carbendazim) Pesticide Residues in Water
3.3.4. Pyrethroids (Cypermethrin, Cyalohathrin) Pesticide Residues in Water
3.4. Correlations of Different Pesticide Residues with Water Quality Parameters
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
References
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Pesticide | Analysis Methodology |
---|---|
Neonicotinoids | The mobile phase of acetonitrile, water, and phosphoric acid (30:70:0.5%) at a flow rate of 1.5 mL per minute, a wavelength of 246 nm, and a pressure of 96 kgf cm−2 were used |
Chlorpyrifos | The mobile phase of acetonitrile and water (80:20) at a flow rate of 1.0 mL per minute, a wavelength of 208 nm, and a pressure of 68 kgf cm−2 were used |
Profenofos | The mobile phase of acetonitrile and water (55:45) at a flow rate of 1.0 mL per minute, a wavelength of 235 nm, and a pressure of 75 kgf cm−2 were used |
Triazophos | The mobile phase of acetonitrile and water (375:225) at a flow rate of 1.0 mL per minute, a wavelength of 235 nm, and a pressure of 93 kgf cm−2 were used |
Pyrethroids | The mobile phase of acetonitrile and water (75:25) at a flow rate of 1.0 mL per minute, a wavelength of 225 nm, and a pressure of 78 kgf cm−2 were used |
Carbamates | The mobile phase of acetonitrile and water (2:1) at a flow rate of 1.0 mL per minute, a wavelength of 220 nm, and a pressure of 75 kgf cm−2 were used |
pH | |||
---|---|---|---|
Summer | Winter | Mean | |
Core area | 7.32 ± 0.01 | 7.44 ± 0.01 | 7.38 ± 0.01 A |
Non-core area | 7.32 ± 0.03 | 7.40 ± 0.03 | 7.36 ± 0.02 A |
Marginal area | 7.30 ± 0.03 | 7.40 ± 0.04 | 7.35 ± 0.03 A |
Mean | 7.31 ± 0.01 B | 7.41 ± 0.02 A |
Area | EC (µS) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Winter | Summer | Mean | |
Core area | 1333.4 ± 85.8 | 1149.9 ± 29.90 | 1241.7 ± 47.8 A |
Non-core area | 1645.1 ± 203.1 | 1143.2 ± 120.84 | 1394.1 ± 125.1 A |
Marginal area | 1358.3 ± 216.2 | 926.1 ± 107.43 | 1142.2 ± 125.2 A |
Mean | 1445.6 ± 102.8 A | 1073.0 ± 55.8 B |
Area | Temperature (°C) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Summer | Winter | Mean | |
Core area | 23.8 ± 0.11 a | 15.5 ± 0.02 c | 19.7 ± 0.77 A |
Non-core area | 23.3 ± 0.11 b | 15.5 ± 0.03 c | 19.4 ± 0.72 B |
Marginal area | 23.3 ± 0.11 b | 15.5 ± 0.05 c | 19.4 ± 0.73 B |
Mean | 23.5 ± 0.07 A | 15.3 ± 0.02 B |
Core Area | Non-Core Area | Marginal Area | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | EC | Temp | pH | EC | Temp | pH | EC | Temp | |
pH | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | ||||||
EC | 0.205 | 1.000 | 0.293 | 1.000 | 0.160 | 1.000 | |||
0.277 | 0.117 | 0.399 | |||||||
Temp | −0.798 ** | −0.358 | 1.000 | −0.318 | −0.377 * | 1.000 | −0.279 | −0.320 | 1.000 |
0.000 | 0.052 | 0.087 | 0.040 | 0.136 | 0.085 | ||||
Thiamethoxam | 0.351 | 0.897 ** | −0.526 ** | 0.480 ** | −0.108 | −0.189 | −0.387 * | −0.350 | −0.368 * |
0.057 | 0.000 | 0.003 | 0.007 | 0.569 | 0.318 | 0.035 | 0.058 | 0.046 | |
Imidacloprid | 0.436 * | 0.849 ** | −0.624 ** | 0.623 ** | 0.004 | −0.324 | −0.425 * | −0.361 | −0.077 |
0.016 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.985 | 0.081 | 0.019 | 0.050 | 0.685 | |
Thiacloprid | 0.375 * | 0.812 ** | −0.564 ** | 0.191 | −0.091 | −0.452 * | −0.768 ** | −0.128 | −0.166 |
0.041 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.312 | 0.631 | 0.012 | 0.000 | 0.501 | 0.382 | |
Acetamiprid | 0.520 ** | 0.817 ** | −0.733 ** | 0.653 ** | 0.341 | −0.671 ** | −0.426 * | −0.379 * | −0.094 |
0.003 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.065 | 0.000 | 0.019 | 0.039 | 0.622 | |
Fipronil | 0.261 | 0.768 ** | −0.411 * | 0.548 ** | 0.553 ** | −0.591 ** | 0.033 | 0.761 ** | −0.275 |
0.164 | 0.000 | 0.024 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.862 | 0.000 | 0.141 | |
Triazophos | 0.448 * | 0.687 ** | −0.510 ** | 0.577 ** | 0.207 | −0.743 ** | −0.405 * | 0.113 | −0.253 |
0.013 | 0.000 | 0.004 | 0.001 | 0.272 | 0.000 | 0.026 | 0.552 | 0.177 | |
Profenofos | 0.556 ** | 0.792 ** | −0.756 ** | 0.533 ** | 0.155 | −0.734 ** | 0.075 | 0.658 ** | −0.395 * |
0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.413 | 0.000 | 0.692 | 0.000 | 0.031 | |
Chlorpyrifos | 0.459 * | 0.759 ** | −0.554 ** | 0.369 * | 0.164 | −0.604 ** | 0.015 | 0.916 ** | −0.123 |
0.011 | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.045 | 0.386 | 0.000 | 0.937 | 0.000 | 0.516 | |
Carbaryl | 0.389 * | 0.801 ** | −0.507 ** | 0.508 ** | 0.243 | −0.852 ** | 0.527 ** | 0.526 ** | −0.475 ** |
0.034 | 0.000 | 0.004 | 0.004 | 0.195 | 0.000 | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.008 | |
Cypermethrin | 0.438 * | 0.800 ** | −0.565 ** | 0.557 ** | −0.029 | −0.424 * | 0.378 * | 0.771 ** | −0.419 * |
0.015 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.879 | 0.020 | 0.040 | 0.000 | 0.021 |
pH | EC | Temp | |
---|---|---|---|
pH | 1.000 | ||
EC | 0.214 * | 1.000 | |
0.043 | |||
Temp | −0.385 ** | −0.320 ** | 1.000 |
0.000 | 0.002 | ||
Thiamethoxam | 0.156 | 0.121 | −0.171 |
0.141 | 0.258 | 0.108 | |
Imidacloprid | −0.052 | −0.107 | −0.199 |
0.627 | 0.314 | 0.059 | |
Thiacloprid | −0.236 * | −0.022 | −0.275 ** |
0.025 | 0.835 | 0.009 | |
Acetamiprid | −0.130 | −0.184 | −0.175 |
0.221 | 0.082 | 0.100 | |
Fipronil | 0.145 | 0.152 | −0.157 |
0.174 | 0.154 | 0.140 | |
Triazophos | 0.143 | 0.124 | −0.251 * |
0.179 | 0.243 | 0.017 | |
Profenofos | 0.259 * | 0.201 | −0.360 ** |
0.014 | 0.058 | 0.000 | |
Chlorpyrifos | 0.180 | 0.127 | −0.196 |
0.089 | 0.233 | 0.064 | |
Carbaryl | 0.220 * | 0.133 | −0.215 * |
0.037 | 0.212 | 0.042 | |
Cypermethrin | 0.186 | 0.116 | −0.192 |
0.078 | 0.275 | 0.069 |
Summer | Winter | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | EC | Temp | pH | EC | Temp | |
pH | 1.000 | 1.000 | ||||
EC | 0.131 | 1.000 | 0.086 | 1.000 | ||
0.390 | 0.573 | |||||
Temp | 0.082 | −0.031 | 1.000 | 0.535 ** | 0.079 | 1.000 |
0.592 | 0.840 | 0.000 | 0.607 | |||
Thiamethoxam | 0.010 | 0.159 | 0.609 ** | 0.121 | 0.036 | 0.056 |
0.948 | 0.298 | 0.000 | 0.429 | 0.813 | 0.716 | |
Imidacloprid | −0.260 | −0.161 | 0.285 | −0.096 | −0.198 | −0.271 |
0.085 | 0.290 | 0.057 | 0.532 | 0.192 | 0.072 | |
Thiacloprid | −0.471 ** | −0.050 | 0.167 | −0.348 * | −0.153 | −0.430 ** |
0.001 | 0.747 | 0.274 | 0.019 | 0.317 | 0.003 | |
Acetamiprid | −0.287 | −0.198 | 0.205 | −0.190 | −0.283 | −0.327 * |
0.056 | 0.192 | 0.178 | 0.212 | 0.059 | 0.028 | |
Fipronil | 0.005 | 0.199 | 0.547 ** | 0.116 | 0.067 | 0.091 |
0.974 | 0.189 | 0.000 | 0.447 | 0.663 | 0.554 | |
Triazophos | −0.122 | 0.118 | 0.477 ** | 0.113 | 0.016 | 0.040 |
0.424 | 0.439 | 0.001 | 0.458 | 0.916 | 0.795 | |
Profenofos | 0.037 | 0.251 | 0.514 ** | 0.164 | 0.053 | 0.119 |
0.808 | 0.096 | 0.000 | 0.282 | 0.731 | 0.436 | |
Chlorpyrifos | 0.019 | 0.197 | 0.555 ** | 0.139 | 0.026 | 0.120 |
0.900 | 0.196 | 0.000 | 0.362 | 0.864 | 0.432 | |
Carbaryl | 0.158 | −0.038 | −0.208 | 0.151 | 0.111 | 0.030 |
0.300 | 0.805 | 0.170 | 0.321 | 0.466 | 0.844 | |
Cypermethrin | 0.018 | 0.183 | 0.559 ** | 0.153 | 0.015 | 0.113 |
0.906 | 0.228 | 0.000 | 0.317 | 0.923 | 0.458 |
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Javaid, Z.; Ghazala; Ibrahim, M.; Mahmood, A.; Bajwa, A.A. Pesticide Contamination of Potable Water and Its Correlation with Water Quality in Different Regions of Punjab, Pakistan. Water 2023, 15, 543. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15030543
Javaid Z, Ghazala, Ibrahim M, Mahmood A, Bajwa AA. Pesticide Contamination of Potable Water and Its Correlation with Water Quality in Different Regions of Punjab, Pakistan. Water. 2023; 15(3):543. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15030543
Chicago/Turabian StyleJavaid, Zeshan, Ghazala, Muhammad Ibrahim, Abid Mahmood, and Ali Ahsan Bajwa. 2023. "Pesticide Contamination of Potable Water and Its Correlation with Water Quality in Different Regions of Punjab, Pakistan" Water 15, no. 3: 543. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15030543