The AWAKE Run 2 Programme and Beyond †
<p>Schematic of the AWAKE Run 1 (2016–18) layout. The laser and proton beams are merged before entering the plasma source. A beam of 10–20 MeV electrons is also merged with the beam line and injected into the entrance of the plasma source. The plasma source contains rubidium vapour at about 200 <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow/> <mo>∘</mo> </msup> </semantics></math>C with precise temperature control over the full 10 m. The beams exit the plasma source and a series of diagnostics are used to characterise them. There are two imaging stations to measure the transverse profile of the proton bunch and screens emitting optical and coherent transition radiation (OTR and CTR) to measure the longitudinal profile of the proton bunch. Electrons are separated from the protons using a dipole magnet which also induces an energy-dependent spread which is measured on a scintillator screen, imaged by a camera. Diagrams of the proton bunch self-modulation and electron capture are shown in the bottom left. A typical image of the accelerated electron bunch as observed on the scintillator screen is shown in the top right.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>(<b>a</b>) Time-resolved image of the SM proton bunch with the RIF placed 125 ps (0.5<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>t</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>, where <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>t</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> is the RMS duration of the proton bunch) ahead of bunch centre (front of the bunch at <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mo><</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> ps), and plasma electron density <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow> <mi>e</mi> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1.81</mn> <mo>×</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>10<math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow/> <mn>14</mn> </msup> </semantics></math> cm<math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mrow/> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </semantics></math> (other parameters in [<a href="#B29-symmetry-14-01680" class="html-bibr">29</a>]). The RIF is at <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> ps on the image. (<b>b</b>) Relative RMS phase variation <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <mo>Φ</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> of the modulated bunches (in % of 2<math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>π</mi> </semantics></math> or of a modulation period) for each set of images acquired every 50 ps along the bunch and aligned in time using a reference laser pulse signal visible as a vertical line at the bottom of image (<b>a</b>) (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>></mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> mm). From Ref. [<a href="#B29-symmetry-14-01680" class="html-bibr">29</a>].</p> "> Figure 3
<p>The amplitude of the excited wakefield <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">z</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="0.166667em"/> <mi>max</mi> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </semantics></math> in the uniform plasma and in plasma with the optimised density step with and without a 1 m gap between SM and acceleration plasma sections. The SM process is seeded by an electron bunch. The density step is the linear growth of the plasma density from <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mn>7</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>14</mn> </msup> <mspace width="0.166667em"/> <msup> <mi>cm</mi> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> to <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mn>7.21</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>14</mn> </msup> <mspace width="0.166667em"/> <msup> <mi>cm</mi> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> at the interval between <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.8</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> m and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2.8</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> m.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Layout of AWAKE Run 2.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Schematic layout of an experiment to search for dark photons. In the AWAKE scheme, a bunch of electrons enters from the left and impacts on a target of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>O</mi> <mo>(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mspace width="0.166667em"/> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> in length. A produced dark photon travels through a vacuum tube of length <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>O</mi> <mo>(</mo> <mn>10</mn> <mspace width="0.166667em"/> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> in which it decays to an <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mo>+</mo> </msup> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mo>−</mo> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> pair which are then measured in a detector system such as a tracking detector and calorimeter.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Sensitivity to dark photon production shown for the coupling strength, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>ϵ</mi> </semantics></math>, and mass, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <msup> <mi>A</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </msub> </semantics></math>. The varied parameters of the proposed beam-dump experiment are (<b>left</b>) the number of electrons on target and (<b>right</b>) the thickness of the solid metal target which the electrons hit. The initial electron energy is assumed to be 50 GeV.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Limits on dark photon production decaying to an <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mo>+</mo> </msup> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mo>−</mo> </msup> </mrow> </semantics></math> pair in terms of the mixing strength, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>ϵ</mi> </semantics></math>, and dark photon mass, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <msup> <mi>A</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </msub> </semantics></math>, from previous measurements (light grey shading). The expected sensitivity for the NA64 experiment is shown for a range of electrons on target, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>10</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>–<math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>13</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>. Expectations from other potential experiments are shown as coloured lines. Expected limits are also shown for <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>15</mn> </msup> </semantics></math> (orange line) or <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>16</mn> </msup> </semantics></math> (green line) electrons of 50 GeV (“AWAKE50”) on target and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mn>16</mn> </msup> </semantics></math> (blue line) electrons of 1 TeV (“AWAKE1k”) on target provided to an experiment using the future AWAKE accelerator scheme. From Ref. [<a href="#B84-symmetry-14-01680" class="html-bibr">84</a>].</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Evolution of the peak longitudinal fields driven by the BNL proton drive beams over 10 m using bunch parameters which differ only in their transverse size, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>r</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>40</mn> <mspace width="0.166667em"/> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>m or <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mn>100</mn> <mspace width="0.166667em"/> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math>m. From Ref. [<a href="#B93-symmetry-14-01680" class="html-bibr">93</a>].</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Summary of Experimental Results from AWAKE Run 1
3. The AWAKE Run 2 Physics Programme
3.1. Self-Modulator
3.1.1. Electron-Bunch Seeding
3.1.2. Plasma Density Step
3.2. Accelerator
3.2.1. External Injection
3.2.2. Scalable Plasma Sources
4. Overview of AWAKE Run 2 Setup
4.1. AWAKE Run 2a
4.2. AWAKE Run 2b
4.3. AWAKE Run 2c
4.4. AWAKE Run 2d
5. Particle Physics Applications of AWAKE
5.1. A Beam-Dump Experiment for Dark Photon Searches
5.2. Investigation of Strong-Field QED in Electron–Laser Collisions
5.3. High Energy Electron–Proton/Ion Colliders
5.4. Use of BNL Proton Beams for a Compact Electron Injector for a Future Electron–Ion Collider
6. Summary
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AWAKE | Advanced wakefield experiment |
BNL | Brookhaven National Laboratory |
CERN | European Organisation for Nuclear Research |
(Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire) | |
CNGS | CERN neutrinos to Gran Sasso |
DESY | Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron |
EIC | Electron–ion collider |
GEANT | Geometry and tracking |
HERA | Hadron–electron ring accelerator |
LHC | Large hadron collider |
LHeC | Large hadron–electron collider |
LUXE | Laser und XFEL experiment |
PEPIC | Plasma electron–proton/ion collider |
QCD | Quantum chromodynamics |
QED | Quantum electrodynamics |
RIF | Relativistic ionisation front |
RMS | Root mean square |
SLAC | Stanford Linear Accelerator |
SM | Self-modulation |
SMI | Self-modulation instability |
SPS | Super proton synchrotron |
VHEeP | Very high energy electron–proton |
XFEL | X-ray free electron laser |
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Gschwendtner, E.; Lotov, K.; Muggli, P.; Wing, M.; Agnello, R.; Ahdida, C.C.; Amoedo Goncalves, M.C.; Andrebe, Y.; Apsimon, O.; Apsimon, R.; et al. The AWAKE Run 2 Programme and Beyond. Symmetry 2022, 14, 1680. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym14081680
Gschwendtner E, Lotov K, Muggli P, Wing M, Agnello R, Ahdida CC, Amoedo Goncalves MC, Andrebe Y, Apsimon O, Apsimon R, et al. The AWAKE Run 2 Programme and Beyond. Symmetry. 2022; 14(8):1680. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym14081680
Chicago/Turabian StyleGschwendtner, Edda, Konstantin Lotov, Patric Muggli, Matthew Wing, Riccardo Agnello, Claudia Christina Ahdida, Maria Carolina Amoedo Goncalves, Yanis Andrebe, Oznur Apsimon, Robert Apsimon, and et al. 2022. "The AWAKE Run 2 Programme and Beyond" Symmetry 14, no. 8: 1680. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym14081680