Measures of Transport-Related Social Exclusion: A Critical Review of the Literature
<p>Standard distance circle and standard deviational ellipse measures (adapted from [<a href="#B118-sustainability-08-00696" class="html-bibr">118</a>]).</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Merged ellipses (adapted from [<a href="#B84-sustainability-08-00696" class="html-bibr">84</a>]).</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Ellipse drawn using the pegs and the furthest activity location (adapted from [<a href="#B121-sustainability-08-00696" class="html-bibr">121</a>]).</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Minimum convex polygon measure (adapted from [<a href="#B123-sustainability-08-00696" class="html-bibr">123</a>]).</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Traces of movement over the road networks [<a href="#B145-sustainability-08-00696" class="html-bibr">145</a>].</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Social Exclusion
3.1. Concept
- ▪
- The democratic and legal system, which promotes civic integration;
- ▪
- The labour market, which promotes economic integration;
- ▪
- The welfare system, promoting what may be called social integration; and
- ▪
- The family and community system, which promotes interpersonal integration.
- ▪
- Individuals—blaming the socially excluded for their own plight;
- ▪
- Institutions and systems—civil and economic institutions which constrain opportunities for some individuals and which are beyond the control of any individual; and
- ▪
- Discrimination and lack of enforced rights—the exercise of agency by some, acting to protect their own interests, and exclude others.
- ▪
- It does not define what constitutes normal activities; and
- ▪
- It does not define what level of engagement constitutes participation in these activities.
3.2. Measures of Social Exclusion
3.3. Transport Disadvantage and Social Exclusion
4. Criteria for the Review of Transport Disadvantage Measures
- Does the measure use a socio-economic disaggregated approach (disaggregation of socio-demographics)?
- Does the measure assess accessibility of different types of opportunities (spatial accessibility)?
- Does the measure assess accessibility of opportunities temporally (temporal accessibility)?
- Does the measure assess accessibility of transport spatially (spatial mobility)?
- Does the measure assess accessibility of transport temporally (temporal mobility)?
- Does the measure model interactions between different causal factors (interaction)?
- Does the measure take into account the activities of others living in the same area (relativity)?
5. Measures of Transport-Related Social Exclusion: A Review
5.1. Deprivation-Based Measures
5.2. Area Mobility-Based Measures
5.3. Area Accessibility-Based Measures
5.4. Activity-Based Measures
5.4.1. Concept of Activity Spaces
5.4.2. Individual Accessibility-Based Measures
5.4.3. Personal Mobility-Based Measures
5.4.4. Participation-Based Measures
6. Synthesis of Discussion on Measures/Indicators
7. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dynamic Process | Static Outcome | Indicator |
---|---|---|
Impoverishment | Poverty | Income |
Social exclusion | Deprivation | Multidimensional |
EID 2007 (England) | NIMDM 2005 (Northern Ireland) | SIMD 2006 (Scotland) | WIMD 2008 (Wales) |
---|---|---|---|
Income (22.5%) | Income (25%) | Income (28%) | Income (23.5%) |
Employment (22.5%) | Employment (25%) | Employment (28%) | Employment (23.5%) |
Health and disability (13.5%) | Health and disability (15%) | Health (14%) | Health (14%) |
Education, skills and training (13.5%) | Education, skills and training (15%) | Education, skills and training (14%) | Education, skills and training (14%) |
Barriers to housing and services (9.3%) | Proximity to Services (10%) | Geographic access to services (9%) | Access to services (10%) |
Living environment (9.3%) | Living environment (5%) | Physical environment (5%) | |
Crime (9.3%) | Crime and disorder (5%) | Crime (5%) | Community safety (5%) |
Housing (2%) | Housing (5%) |
Dimension | Indicator | Measures |
---|---|---|
Consumption activity | Low income | Income under half mean equalised household income |
Savings activity | Low wealth | Not an owner-occupier, not contributing to or receiving an occupational or personal pension, and no savings over £2000 |
Production activity | Lacks production activity | Not in employment or self-employment, full time education or training, looking after children, ore retired over pensionable age |
Political activity | Political unengaged | Did not vote in the 1992 general election and not member of political or campaigning organisation |
Social activity | Socially isolated | In any one of five respects, lacks someone who will offer support (listen, help in crisis, can relax with, really appreciates you, can count on to comfort) |
Reference | Context | Measures Used or Proposed | Identified Disadvantaged |
---|---|---|---|
Department for Transport [77] | England | Qualitative (e.g., focus groups, interviews) | Unemployed people, families with young children, young people, older people, low-income |
Social Exclusion Unit [9] | England | Qualitative (public consultation and in-depth interviews to assess area accessibility and area mobility) | - |
Department for Transport [19] | England | Mobility (area mobility and car ownership), area accessibility | Users of public transport |
Department for Communities and Local Government [56] | England | Deprivation indices (distance to essential opportunities) | Output areas |
Preston and Rajé [54] | England | Area mobility, area accessibility, personal mobility | - |
Welsh Assembly Government [58] | Wales | Deprivation indices (distance to essential opportunities) | Output areas |
Hine and Mitchell [2,7] | Scotland | Area accessibility, personal mobility (distance travelled, travel time), participation frequency (number of trip per week) and qualitative measures | Low incomes, women, elderly, disabled, children |
Scottish Executive [57] | Scotland | Deprivation indices (distance to essential opportunities) | Data zones |
Wu and Hine [78] | Northern Ireland | Area mobility, car-ownership | Households with no car and living in areas with no public transport services |
NISRA [39] | Northern Ireland | Deprivation indices (distance to essential opportunities) | Output areas |
Kamruzzaman et al. [41] | Northern Ireland | Participation (number of unique locations visited), participation duration (average daily activity duration), personal mobility (average daily distance travelled) | Students who live away from a demand responsive transport service |
McDonagh [18] | Ireland | Qualitative (Policy review) | Rural areas |
Currie et al. [79] | Australia | Area mobility, car ownership, number of trips, average trip length | Outer Melbourne area, individuals who are structurally dependent on the car, non-car individuals who live away from a city centre |
Hurni [66] | Australia | Area mobility, area accessibility, car-ownership | Western Sydney region |
Battellino et al. [80] | Australia | Area mobility, personal mobility | Disabled people living within the public transport accessible areas |
Currie and Delbosc [63] Delbosc and Currie [22] | Australia | Multi-dimensional qualitative indicators were grouped into four dimensional measures of disadvantaged (e.g., transport, transit, impaired, rely on others) | Busy working adults, low-income, poor health, unemployed |
Dodson et al. [81] | Australia | Area mobility, area accessibility | Suburban areas around Nerang, Worongary and Mudgeeraba |
Casas [67] | USA | Personal mobility (the longest distance travelled from home), individual accessibility (cumulative opportunity) | Disabled |
Casas et al. [82] | USA | Deprivation indices, personal mobility, individual accessibility (cumulative opportunity and space-time accessibility of opportunities) | Children in households with no employed member |
McCray and Brais [83] | Canada | Area generated based on the locations of visited activity (standard distance circle) | Non-car owner, women with small children, women who live away from transit route |
Schönfelder and Axhausen [84] | Germany | Area generated based on the locations of visited activity (e.g., standard deviational ellipse), participation (number of unique locations visited, number of trips) | No groups have been identified as disadvantaged |
Priya and Uteng [20] | Norway | Car-ownership (driver’s license) | Low incomes |
Cebollada [32] | Spain | Area mobility, car-ownership (driver’s license) | Women, young adults, immigrants |
Transport Disadvantage Measure | Criteria Used for the Evaluation of Transport Disadvantage Measures | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Socioeconomic disaggregation | Spatial disaggregation | Temporal disaggregation | Interaction | Spatial relativity | |||
Did the measure use a socioeconomic disaggregated approach? | Did the measure assess accessibility of different types of opportunities? | Did the measure assess accessibility of transport spatially? | Did the measure assess accessibility of opportunities temporally? | Did the measure assess accessibility of transport temporally? | Did the measure model interactions between different causal factors? | Did the measure take into account the activities of others living in the same area? | |
Process-based measures | |||||||
Area deprivation measure | Partly | Yes | No | Yes | No | No | No |
Area accessibility measure | Partly | Yes | Partly | No | No | No | No |
Area mobility measure | Partly | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | No |
Outcome-based measures | |||||||
Personal mobility measure | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | No |
Individual accessibility measure | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Partly |
Participation-based measure | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No |
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Kamruzzaman, M.; Yigitcanlar, T.; Yang, J.; Mohamed, M.A. Measures of Transport-Related Social Exclusion: A Critical Review of the Literature. Sustainability 2016, 8, 696. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8070696
Kamruzzaman M, Yigitcanlar T, Yang J, Mohamed MA. Measures of Transport-Related Social Exclusion: A Critical Review of the Literature. Sustainability. 2016; 8(7):696. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8070696
Chicago/Turabian StyleKamruzzaman, Md., Tan Yigitcanlar, Jay Yang, and Mohd Afzan Mohamed. 2016. "Measures of Transport-Related Social Exclusion: A Critical Review of the Literature" Sustainability 8, no. 7: 696. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8070696