The Use of Bi-Potentiostat as a Simple and Accurate Electrochemical Approach for the Determination of Orthophosphate in Seawater
<p>Schematic diagram of the FIA-DECD showing the peristaltic pump, electrochemical dual-channel cell, and switching valve with the connections for all reagents, standard solutions, and inflow of seawater.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Flow chart for automatic data processing of raw data obtained using the Metrohm Dropview software.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Map showing the track of RV Littorina in German Bight (southeastern North Sea) (<b>top left</b>), setup of the FIA-DECD during deployment on the research vessel (<b>top right</b>), and a 200 liter water tank with submerged sensors which supplied the FIA-DECD analyzer with surface seawater using a pump placed in the tank (<b>bottom right and left</b>).</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Square wave voltammograms of molybdate/CPE (blue line) and CPE (red line) in a solution of 0.1 µM PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup> in 35 g/L NaCl (pH 0.8) obtained using step potential 2 mV, square amplitude 10 mV, and square frequency 10 mV. The resulting voltammogram after subtraction of the CPE signal from the molybdate/CPE signal is also shown (green line).</p> "> Figure 5
<p>(<b>A</b>) The effect of varying square wave frequency from 1 to 20 Hz, (<b>B</b>) the effect of varying step potential from 1 to 20 mV, and (<b>C</b>) and the effect of square wave amplitude from 1 to 200 mV on the slope of a calibration plot constructed from the corrected square wave voltammogram’s peak current of 0, 0.5, and 1 µM PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup> in 30 g/L NaCl (pH 0.8). Error bar (n = 5).</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Interference effect from non-ionic surfactant (Triton x-100) on the square wave voltammograms peak current (µA) at (<b>A</b>) molybdate/CPE and (<b>B</b>) the resulting voltammogram obtained after subtraction of CPE signal from the molybdate/CPE of 1 µM PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup> in 30 g/L NaCl, pH 0.8. The parameters for square wave voltammetry were a step potential of 2 mV, an amplitude of 50 mV, and a frequency of 10 Hz. Error bar (n = 5).</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Calibration plots for two concentration ranges. Low range (0.02, 0.05, 0.1, and 0.2 µM PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup>) and high range (0.5, 1, 2, and 3 µM PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup>) in 30 g/L NaCl (pH 0.8), a step potential of 2 mV, an amplitude of 50 mV and a frequency of 10 Hz. Error bar (±σ) (n = 5).</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Contour plots of variables in the study region. (<b>A</b>) The distribution of surface salinity, (<b>B</b>) the distribution of NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> concentration determined with the Trios sensor OPUS, (<b>C</b>) the distribution of PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup> concentration determined in discrete samples collected and analyzed with an electrochemical analyzer (FIA-DECD), and (<b>D</b>) the distribution of PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup> concentration determined in discretely collected samples and analyzed at GEOMAR using a spectrophotometric analyzer. Maps plotted via ODV 5.3.0 [<a href="#B52-sensors-23-02123" class="html-bibr">52</a>].</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Property–property plots for electrochemically measured PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup> concentration in µM compared with (<b>A</b>) salinity (Pearson’s r = −0.908, n = 31), (<b>B</b>) NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> concentration in µM determined from a Trios OPUS sensor (Pearson’s r = 0.65, n = 34), (<b>C</b>) Ʃ(NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> + NO<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>) concentration in µM analyzed in discrete samples with a QuAAtro analyzer (Pearson’s r = 0.826, n = 34), and (<b>D</b>) H<sub>4</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub> concentration in discrete samples analyzed with a QuAAtro spectrophotometric analyzer (Pearson’s r = 0.815, n = 34), and for PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup> concentration in µM measured spectrophotometrically with the QuAAtro air segment analyzer versus (<b>E</b>) salinity (Pearson’s r = −0.968, n = 31), (<b>F</b>) NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> concentration in µM from a Trios OPUS sensor (Pearson’s r = 0.794, n = 34), (<b>G</b>) ∑(NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> + NO<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>) concentration in µM analyzed in discrete samples with the QuAAtro analyzer (Pearson’s r = 0.901, n = 34), and (<b>H</b>) H<sub>4</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub> concentration in discrete samples analyzed with the QuAAtro spectrophotometric analyzer (Pearson’s r = 0.841, n = 34).</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Scatter plot for <span class="html-italic">on-site</span> PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup> concentrations (µM) measured electrochemically via FIA-DECD versus PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup> concentrations (µM) measured in discrete samples collected and analyzed via a reference colorimetric laboratory-based analyzer. Pearson’s R = 0.917.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Chemicals
2.2. Description of Apparatus
2.3. Preparation of Modified Electrodes
2.4. Data Processing
2.5. Analytical Procedure
2.6. Field Testing
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Dual-Channel Electrochemical PO43− Measurement
3.2. The Influence of Square Wave Voltammetry Parameters
3.3. Influence of Salinity Variation
3.4. Interferences between Surfactant and Humic Acid
3.5. Analytical Performance
3.6. Field Deployment
4. Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Work
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Altahan, M.F.; Esposito, M.; Bogner, B.; Achterberg, E.P. The Use of Bi-Potentiostat as a Simple and Accurate Electrochemical Approach for the Determination of Orthophosphate in Seawater. Sensors 2023, 23, 2123. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042123
Altahan MF, Esposito M, Bogner B, Achterberg EP. The Use of Bi-Potentiostat as a Simple and Accurate Electrochemical Approach for the Determination of Orthophosphate in Seawater. Sensors. 2023; 23(4):2123. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042123
Chicago/Turabian StyleAltahan, Mahmoud Fatehy, Mario Esposito, Boie Bogner, and Eric P. Achterberg. 2023. "The Use of Bi-Potentiostat as a Simple and Accurate Electrochemical Approach for the Determination of Orthophosphate in Seawater" Sensors 23, no. 4: 2123. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042123