Remote Sensing of Seawater Temperature and Salinity Profiles by the Brillouin Lidar Based on a Fizeau Interferometer and Multichannel Photomultiplier Tube
<p>Schematic of the Brillouin spectral method based on a Fizeau interferometer and multichannel PMT. The light emitted by the pulse laser is split by M<sub>1</sub> into two parts. One is collected by PMT0 as the reference beam to monitor the energy changes. The other part, after the beam expander system, directly enters the water to produce a scattering light. Subsequently, the 180° backscattered light is first collected by a Cassegrain telescope and transmitted through an optical fiber. After collimation, the light successively passes through a narrowband filter (F) and the Fizeau interferometer (FI), producing an interference fringe. The fringe is then sharpened by the cylindrical lens (CL) and finally detected by the multichannel PMT. (M<sub>i</sub> and L<span class="html-italic"><sub>i</sub></span> indicate the mirrors and lenses, respectively, and C is the fiber collimator).</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Schematic of data acquisition and spectral reconstruction.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>RB scattering spectrum obtained under different channel numbers of the PMT: (<b>a</b>) 4; (<b>b</b>) 8; (<b>c</b>) 16; and (<b>d</b>) 32.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Deviations under different channel numbers of the PMT: (<b>a</b>) Brillouin shift; (<b>b</b>) Brillouin linewidth.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Result of spectral measurement accuracy considering spectral drift: (<b>a</b>) Brillouin frequency error retrieved when the spectra shift from −0.762 to 0.762 GHz; (<b>b</b>) Brillouin linewidth error retrieved when the spectra shift from −0.762 to 0.762 GHz.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Schematic of the system used for Brillouin energy measurement.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Diagram of the experimental system for Brillouin energy measurement in water.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Iodine absorption lines under different temperatures within 15 GHz at a wavelength of approximately 532.293 nm.</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Scattered signals before and after passing through an iodine cell: (<b>a</b>) overall scattered signal before passing through the iodine cell; (<b>b</b>) Brillouin scattering signal after passing through the iodine cell.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Results of the Brillouin energy measurement experiment before and after passing through the iodine cell after averaging 100 times.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>Calculation of the attenuation coefficient of water: (<b>a</b>) fitting result for the total scattering energy; (<b>b</b>) fitting result for the Brillouin scattering energy.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>Variation in the number of Brillouin scattering photons with the measurement depth.</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Maximum detection depth for different attenuation coefficients.</p> "> Figure 14
<p>Relationships between the SNR and accuracy of the temperature and salinity measurements: (<b>a</b>) temperature deviation with respect to the SNR; (<b>b</b>) salinity deviation with respect to the SNR.</p> "> Figure 15
<p>Simulated scattering spectrogram received by a 16-multichannel PMT under an SNR of 35.</p> "> Figure 16
<p>Relationship between the SNR and detection depth under different accumulation numbers.</p> "> Figure 17
<p>Effective detection depth under different water attenuation coefficients.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. System and Theory
2.1. Brillouin Lidar System
2.2. Theory of Measurement
3. System Parameters Optimization and Analysis
4. Brillouin Lidar System Performance
4.1. Detection Depth Analysis of the Lidar System
4.1.1. Experiment of Brillouin Energy Measurement
4.1.2. Analogy of Maximum Detection Depth
4.2. Detection Accuracy Analysis of Lidar System
4.2.1. SNR and Measurement Depth Analysis
4.2.2. Echo Photon Number and Detection Depth Analysis
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | Value | Parameter | Value |
---|---|---|---|
Laser energy E | 20 mJ | Pulse width | 10 ns |
Laser wavelength λ | 532 nm | Brillouin backscattering coefficient | |
Telescope radius r | 0.05 m | Height H | 100 m |
Attenuation coefficient | 0.08 | Atmospheric attenuation efficiency | 0.81 |
Detection efficiency | 0.13 | Optical efficiency | 0.4 |
Refractive index n | 1.33 | Repetitive frequency | 100 Hz |
Parameter | Value | Parameter | Value |
---|---|---|---|
Laser energy E0 | 0.2 mJ | Pulse width | 10 ns |
Laser wavelength | 532.293 nm | Repetitive frequency | 100 Hz |
Telescope diameter d0 | 0.025 m | Scattering angle θ | 179° |
Attenuation coefficient | 0.099 | Height H0 | 2.45 m |
Averaging number M0 | 100 |
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Wang, Y.; Xu, Y.; Chen, P.; Liang, K. Remote Sensing of Seawater Temperature and Salinity Profiles by the Brillouin Lidar Based on a Fizeau Interferometer and Multichannel Photomultiplier Tube. Sensors 2023, 23, 446. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010446
Wang Y, Xu Y, Chen P, Liang K. Remote Sensing of Seawater Temperature and Salinity Profiles by the Brillouin Lidar Based on a Fizeau Interferometer and Multichannel Photomultiplier Tube. Sensors. 2023; 23(1):446. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010446
Chicago/Turabian StyleWang, Yuanqing, Yangrui Xu, Ping Chen, and Kun Liang. 2023. "Remote Sensing of Seawater Temperature and Salinity Profiles by the Brillouin Lidar Based on a Fizeau Interferometer and Multichannel Photomultiplier Tube" Sensors 23, no. 1: 446. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010446