A Narrow Optical Pulse Emitter Based on LED: NOPELED
<p>NOPELED Electronics boards: the controller and the pulser.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>The architecture of NOPELED. The pulser board contains the switching electronics to make the LED flash. The control board includes the booster, where the variable voltage to supply the pulser is generated; the trigger block, where the internal or external trigger is selected; and the control block, where the internal trigger is generated, the trigger selection is controlled, as well where the PWM signal to control the booster voltage is created. The control block also implements communications via I<sup>2</sup>C.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Pulser circuit. The values of the components are: L1 = L2 = 100 µH; C1 = 100 nF; C2 = 47 pF; C3 = 100 pF; C4 = 10 pF; C5 = 10 nF; R1 = 100 Ω; R2 = 100 kΩ; R3 = 2.2 kΩ; and R4 = 10 kΩ.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>PCB layout of the NOPELED controller. Top and bottom layers of the control board.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Flow diagram of NOPELED embedded software. At start-up, the fuse and serial configuration are performed. The next step is the initialization of the variables, which is followed by interrupt enabling. After these initial steps, the embedded software waits for the arrival of I<sup>2</sup>C messages. The received command is analyzed, and the corresponding tasks are performed, coming back to the waiting stage.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Tests setup for the measurement of the electrical pulse. The electrical pulse is measured by connecting the pads of the LED to one 8-GHz oscilloscope channel.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Electrical pulse measured with a 405 nm LED, supplied at 30 V with a frequency of 1 kHz. The negative after pulse, created by the inductor in parallel with the LED, helps to decrease the duration of the optical pulse.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>The electrical pulse is obtained with LEDs of 405 nm (<b>a</b>), 505 nm (<b>b</b>), and 532 nm (<b>c</b>). The electrical pulse without LED (<b>d</b>) is also presented. The pulses are presented for each LED, varying the voltage from 10 to 30 V in steps of 5 V and with a fixed frequency of 1 kHz.</p> "> Figure 9
<p>The electrical pulse is obtained with LEDs of 405, 505, and 532 nm. The electrical pulse without LED is also presented. The pulses in this case are presented by voltage (10 (<b>a</b>), 15 (<b>b</b>), 25 (<b>c</b>), and 30 V (<b>d</b>)). The impedance of the LED makes the system slow down. The differences in the electrical pulse between LEDs are also due to small differences in the LED impedance. The negative oscillation is caused by the inductor placed in parallel with the LED to reduce the pulse duration.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Rise time of the electrical pulse for 405, 505, and 532 nm LEDs. It is also presented the rise time without LED.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>NOPELED pulse intensity measured in two LEDs at different values of voltage with the frequency fixed at 1 kHz (<b>top</b>). The pulse intensity has also been measured at different frequencies with the voltage fixed at 30 V (<b>bottom</b>). The intensity increases with the voltage and stays stable with frequency.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>Photo-electron setup inside the dark box. In the foreground, the photo-electron PMT with the trigger PMT mounted on top it is seen. In the background, the LED pulser can be observed.</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Skew between the electrical trigger and the trigger photo-multiplier. The data have been fit to a Gaussian function. The standard deviation is 184 ps.</p> "> Figure 14
<p>Pulse shape of NOPELED obtained using the technique of the photo-electron. NOPELED was operated at 1 kHz, and a voltage of 15 V. The histogram obtained has been fit to a Weibull function, obtaining a rise time of 2.65 ns and an FWHM of 6.42 ns.</p> "> Figure 15
<p>Optical pulse results for three different LED models at 532 (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>), 505 (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>), and 405 nm (<b>e</b>). The variation in the rise time and FWHM with respect to the voltage (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>) and frequency (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>,<b>e</b>) is presented for LEDs of 532 and 505 nm, while the variation with respect to frequency is presented for 405 nm.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. NOPELED Overview
3. Electronics
3.1. Pulser Circuit
3.2. Control Board
3.2.1. Control Block
3.2.2. Trigger Block
- Selector: Through five logic gates and one digital selection output of the microcontroller, this block is responsible for selecting between the trigger provided externally and an internal trigger generated by the microcontroller. They are fast response gates; around 4 ns of rise time. The trigger configuration, external or internal, is selected by a microcontroller digital output.
- Adapter: The trigger signal received, whether internal or external, is adapted. A fast comparator improves the response of the output, reducing the rise time of the trigger because the sharper the rise time of the trigger, the shorter the optical pulse produced.
3.2.3. Booster Subsystem
- Booster DC/DC: The electronics necessary for the correct operation of the micro converter is the main component of the booster. The variation in the voltage obtained at the output of the micro converter is obtained by modifying the duty cycle of the signal of the PWM module of the microcontroller. The duty signal varies between 1% and 82% of duty. It is limited by software, being able to modify this value through NOPELED I2C communication commands.
- Control filter: The filter adapts the square signal received from the microcontroller module to a signal filtered by a 1-order low-pass filter. This filter will only pass the low frequencies of the signal provided by the PWM module of the microcontroller. In this way, the desired voltage is controlled.
3.3. Layout
4. Embedded Software
4.1. Configuration of Fuses, Serial Ports, and Initialization
4.2. I2C Interrupt
4.3. Main Program
4.4. Simulation
5. Pulse Qualification
5.1. Electrical Pulse Shape
5.2. Pulse Intensity
5.3. Optical Pulse Shape
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Real, D.; Calvo, D.; Díaz, A.; Salesa Greus, F.; Sánchez Losa, A. A Narrow Optical Pulse Emitter Based on LED: NOPELED. Sensors 2022, 22, 7683. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197683
Real D, Calvo D, Díaz A, Salesa Greus F, Sánchez Losa A. A Narrow Optical Pulse Emitter Based on LED: NOPELED. Sensors. 2022; 22(19):7683. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197683
Chicago/Turabian StyleReal, Diego, David Calvo, Antonio Díaz, Francisco Salesa Greus, and Agustín Sánchez Losa. 2022. "A Narrow Optical Pulse Emitter Based on LED: NOPELED" Sensors 22, no. 19: 7683. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197683