Development of a Smart Ball to Evaluate Locomotor Performance: Application in Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities
<p>Illustration of the circuit design into the core of the ball.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>The location of the sensors: (<b>a</b>) the smart ball sensors, including an accelerometer (<span class="html-italic">ball_acc</span>) and a gyroscope (<span class="html-italic">ball_gyr</span>) at the core of the ball, (<b>b</b>) the wearable sensors, including six trackers at the right or left outer sides of the arms, thighs, calves, and one at the lower back.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Illustrations of the tests: (<b>a</b>) picking up the ball at the spot it was placed, which was at three different heights, (<b>b</b>) throwing-and-catching the ball, where “<span class="html-italic">h</span>” denoted the height the ball should reach, (<b>c</b>) dribbling the ball along a straight line, where the dotted arrow showed the dribbling direction, and (<b>d</b>) dribbling the ball along a zigzag line with five obstacles staggered in a zigzag order.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Illustration of the signal from <span class="html-italic">ball_acc</span>. The reaction time (<math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>r</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>c</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math>) was defined as the interval from the beep sound (denoteds as “x”) to the time at which the ball started moving.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Illustrations of signals from <span class="html-italic">ball_acc</span>: (<b>a</b>) throw and catch successfully, where the signal was cut off (i.e., period “<span class="html-italic">t<sub>x</sub></span>”) due to the weightless state as the sensor stays in the air, (<b>b</b>) throw without catching successfully, where “<span class="html-italic">t<sub>y</sub></span>” was the first impact of the ball to the ground and was followed by another weightless period with a series of pulses due to the bounces of the ball (i.e., period “<span class="html-italic">t<sub>z</sub></span>”).</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Illustration of the signal from <span class="html-italic">ball_gyr</span> during the straight-line dribbling. The total rotation angle of the ball can be obtained by accumulating the sensor signal during the rotating period.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Illustration of the swinging angle measured from the <span class="html-italic">right_calf</span> on the sagittal plane. The angle from a valley point (blue circle) to a peak point (red cross) represented the degree through which the participant swung the calf once.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Illustration of the trunk tilt angle measured from <span class="html-italic">back_trunk</span> on the sagittal plane. The angle from a valley point (blue circle) to a peak point (red cross) represented the tilt angle through which the participant swung the trunk to maintain balance.</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Illustrations of the validation tests: (<b>a</b>) for the Xsens tracker and (<b>b</b>) for the smart ball. All of the tests were captured under eight surrounded Vicon cameras.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Results of <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>r</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>c</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math>. The participants with an intellectual disability (ID) had a slower reaction time only in the picking-up-the-ball test.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>Results of <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>o</mi> <mi>w</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>d</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>c</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math>. The paticipants with ID exhibited clearly lower throwing-and-catching rates than the typically developing (TD) participants.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>Results of <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>_</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math> and <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>_</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mi>z</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math>. The participants with ID exhibited longer dribbling distances than the TD participants in both tests.</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Results of <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>_</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math> and <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>b</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>_</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mi>z</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math>. The participants with ID displayed longer dribbling times than the TD participants in both tests.</p> "> Figure 14
<p>Results of the limb swinging frequency: <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mfenced> <mstyle mathvariant="bold" mathsize="normal"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mfenced> <mo> </mo> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>w</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>_</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <mfenced> <mstyle mathvariant="bold" mathsize="normal"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mfenced> <mo> </mo> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>w</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>_</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <mrow> <mo> </mo> <mi>and</mi> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mfenced> <mstyle mathvariant="bold" mathsize="normal"> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mfenced> <mo> </mo> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>w</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>_</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>.</mo> </mrow> </semantics> </math> The participants with ID displayed overall lower limb swing frequencies in both tests.</p> "> Figure 15
<p>Results of the limb swinging angle: <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mfenced> <mstyle mathvariant="bold" mathsize="normal"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mfenced> <mo> </mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>w</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>_</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <mfenced> <mstyle mathvariant="bold" mathsize="normal"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mfenced> <mo> </mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>w</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>_</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <mrow> <mi>and</mi> <mo> </mo> </mrow> <mfenced> <mstyle mathvariant="bold" mathsize="normal"> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mfenced> <mo> </mo> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow> <mi>s</mi> <mi>w</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>_</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>f</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math>. The participants with ID showed overall smaller limb swing angles in both tests, where the difference of the calf angles reached more than 10°.</p> "> Figure 16
<p>Results of the trunk tilt angle <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics> </math>. The participants with ID displayed larger tilt angles in the straight-line test but lower angles in the zigzag line test.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Related Works
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Participants
3.2. Measurement Devices
- A.
- Nonwearable Smart Ball
- B.
- Wearable: Xsens Tracker
3.3. Testing Flow
- (1)
- Picking up the ball: The ball was placed in front of the participant. After the beep sound, the participant was asked to pick up the ball as quickly as possible. The test repeated three times. The ball was placed at a different height each time (Figure 3a).
- (2)
- Throwing and catching the ball: The participant first held the ball to the chest. After the beep sound, the participant was asked to throw up the ball vertically over a certain height (e.g., 2.5 m) and catch the ball stably with two hands (Figure 3b).
- (3)
- Dribbling the ball along a straight line: The participant was asked to dribble the ball with the feet along a straight line in a lane that was 12 m in length and 2 m in width (1 m to each side of the straight line) without any obstacles (Figure 3c).
- (4)
- Dribbling the ball with feet along a zigzag line: The participant was asked to dribble the ball with the feet along in the same lane (length 12 m, width 2 m) with five obstacles staggered in a zigzag order (Figure 3d).
3.4. Parameters and Signal Processing
- A.
- Average Reaction Time
- B.
- Throwing-and-Catching Rate
- C.
- Total dribbling time
- D.
- Total Dribbling Distance
- E.
- Limb Swinging Angle
- F.
- Limb Swinging Frequency
- G.
- Trunk Tilt Angle
3.5. Validation
4. Results
4.1. Validation Results
- A.
- Xsens Tracker Validation
- B.
- Smart Ball Validation
4.2. Ball-Related Skill Performance
- A.
- Average Reaction Time
- B.
- Successful Throwing-and-Catching Rate
- C.
- Total Dribbling Distance
- D.
- Total Dribbling Time
4.3. Limbs and Trunk Performance
- A.
- Limb Swinging Frequency
- B.
- Limb Swinging Angle
- C.
- Trunk Tilt Angle
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AAIDD | American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities |
ID | Intellectual disability |
TD | Typical developing |
PDMS-2 | Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, Second Edition |
PGMQS | Preschooler Gross Motor Quality Scale |
PU | Polyurethane |
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Requirement | Optical Motion Capture System | Wearable Sensors | Proposed Smart Ball |
---|---|---|---|
Motion tracking | Applicable | Applicable | Partially applicable |
Locomotor performance | Partially applicable | Partially applicable | Applicable |
Cognitive ability | Inapplicable | Inapplicable | Applicable |
Complexity | High | Medium to low | Low |
Cost | $10,000–$20,000 | $1000–$10,000 | $1000–$2000 |
Group | Total | Age (Mean ± “SD”) | Gender | Number | Age (Mean ± “SD”) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ID | 25 | 18.36 ± 2.46 | Male | 15 | 18.00 ± 2.56 |
Female | 10 | 18.90 ± 2.33 | |||
TD | 25 | 18.36 ± 0.49 | Male | 11 | 18.55 ± 0.52 |
Female | 14 | 18.21 ± 0.43 |
Sensors | Parameter | Type |
---|---|---|
gyroscope | Voltage (VDD) | 1.8 V, 5 V |
Full-Scale Range | ±250 °/s, ±500 °/s, ±1000 °/s, ±2000 °/s | |
ADC Word Length | 16 bits | |
Nonlinearity | Best fit straight line, 25 °C | |
Frequencies (x, y, z) | 33 KHz, 30 KHz, 27 KHz | |
Start-up time | 30 ms | |
accelerometer | Voltage (VDD) | 1.8 V, 5 V |
Full-Scale Range | ±2 g, ±4 g, ±8 g, ±16 g | |
ADC Word Length | 16 bits | |
Nonlinearity | Best fit straight line; 25 °C | |
Initial Calibration Tolerance (x, y, z) | ±50 mg, ±80 mg, ±35 mg | |
Start-up time | 30 ms |
Sensor | Tracker (°) | Vicon (°) | Error (%) | Tracker (°) | Vicon (°) | Error (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
arm | 93.41 | 90 | 3.8 | 185.65 | 180 | 3.1 |
thigh | 92.98 | 90 | 3.3 | 185.34 | 180 | 2.9 |
calf | 92.72 | 90 | 3.0 | 185.46 | 180 | 3.0 |
back_trunk | 93.71 | 90 | 4.1 | 186.12 | 180 | 3.4 |
Mean | 93.21 | 90 | 3.6 | 185.64 | 180 | 3.1 |
Parameter | Smart Ball | Vicon | Error Rate |
---|---|---|---|
Reaction time | 3.57 (s) | 3.45 (s) | 3.1 (%) |
Throwing height | 1.16 (m) | 1.14 (m) | 2.9 (%) |
Throwing-and-catching rate (success/total) | 29/60 | 30/60 | 1.6 (%) |
Dribbling distance (5 m) | 5.13 (m) | – | 2.60 (%) |
Dribbling distance (10 m) | 10.37 (m) | – | 3.70 (%) |
Dribbling distance (15 m) | 15.17 (m) | – | 1.12 (%) |
Test | TD Mean ± SD (s) | ID Mean ± SD (s) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Picking-up-the-ball | 1.11 ± 0.26 | 1.31 ± 0.36 | 0.032 * |
Dribbling (Straight-line) | 1.44 ± 0.42 | 1.16 ± 0.69 | 0.079 |
Dribbling (Zigzag) | 1.11 ± 0.22 | 0.92 ± 0.66 | 0.185 |
Test | TD Mean ± SD (s) | ID Mean ± SD (s) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Throwing-and-catching | 84.0 ± 3.74 | 46.8 ± 3.59 | 0.001 * |
TD Mean ± SD (s) | ID Mean ± SD (s) | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Dribbling (Straight-line) | 12.59 ± 0.73 | 14.70 ± 3.24 | 0.001 * |
Dribbling (Zigzag-line) | 16.62 ± 0.85 | 19.76 ± 4.71 | 0.002 * |
Test | TD Mean ± SD (s) | ID (sec) Mean ± SD (s) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Dribbling (Straight-line) | 13.74 ± 3.88 | 22.72 ± 10.60 | 0.000 * |
Dribbling (Zigzag-line) | 26.35 ± 7.96 | 37.01 ± 14.05 | 0.002 * |
Arm | Thigh | Calf | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Test | TD M ± SD | ID M ± SD | p | TD M ± SD | ID M ± SD | p | TD M ± SD | ID M ± SD | p |
Straight Dribbling | 101.25 ± 16.95 | 90.20 ± 25.40 | 0.077 | 122.76 ± 22.49 | 103.94 ± 23.69 | 0.006 * | 119.37 ± 22.19 | 105.10 ± 21.14 | 0.024 * |
Zigzag Dribbling | 86.23 ± 20.14 | 86.26 ± 17.16 | 0.898 | 104.56 ± 18.28 | 95.63 ± 18.68 | 0.094 | 104.90 ± 22.46 | 99.36 ± 16.63 | 0.229 |
Arm Swinging Angle | Thigh Swinging Angle | Calf Swinging Angle | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Test | TD M ± SD | ID M ± SD | p | TD M ± SD | ID M ± SD | p | TD M ± SD | ID M ± SD | p |
Straight Dribbling | 56.02 (±20.74) | 39.05 (±14.13) | 0.001 * | 49.03 (±7.82) | 45.27 (±7.73) | 0.094 | 87.14 (±15.06) | 75.35 (±16.87) | 0.012 * |
Zigzag Dribbling | 41.97 (±11.87) | 35.68 (±8.55) | 0.037 * | 47.39 (±8.73) | 40.89 (±9.47) | 0.009 * | 71.07 (±13.38) | 61.88 (±10.12) | 0.009 * |
Test | TD (sec) (Mean ± SD) | ID (sec) (Mean ± SD) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Dribbling (Straight-line) | 26.77 ± 5.27 | 32.38 ± 8.81 | 0.009 * |
Dribbling (Zigzag-line) | 44.05 ± 7.66 | 41.69 ± 8.95 | 0.322 |
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Shieh, W.-Y.; Ju, Y.-Y.; Yu, Y.-C.; Pandelaki, S.; Cheng, H.-Y.K. Development of a Smart Ball to Evaluate Locomotor Performance: Application in Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities. Sensors 2020, 20, 5444. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20185444
Shieh W-Y, Ju Y-Y, Yu Y-C, Pandelaki S, Cheng H-YK. Development of a Smart Ball to Evaluate Locomotor Performance: Application in Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities. Sensors. 2020; 20(18):5444. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20185444
Chicago/Turabian StyleShieh, Wann-Yun, Yan-Ying Ju, Yu-Chun Yu, Steven Pandelaki, and Hsin-Yi Kathy Cheng. 2020. "Development of a Smart Ball to Evaluate Locomotor Performance: Application in Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities" Sensors 20, no. 18: 5444. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20185444