Estimation of Ground Reaction Forces and Moments During Gait Using Only Inertial Motion Capture
<p>The definition of the 23 segments in the kinematic model of Xsens MVN. An inertial measurement unit is mounted on each of the 17 segments indicated with bold text. The 5 new segments (red italic font) are formed by the combination of MVN segments (within dashed-lined boxes) to match the segment definitions of De Leva [<a href="#B29-sensors-17-00075" class="html-bibr">29</a>].</p> "> Figure 2
<p>The three AMTI force plate system used, denoting the coordinate system of the laboratory. The vertical axis (<span class="html-italic">z</span>) points upwards, perpendicular to the anterior (<span class="html-italic">x</span>) and lateral (<span class="html-italic">y</span>) axes.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>The curves of the smooth transition assumption function for the three GRF components (<math display="inline"> <semantics> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow> <mi>F</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics> </math>, three graphs on the top) and three GRM components (<math display="inline"> <semantics> <msub> <mi>f</mi> <mrow> <mi>M</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>S</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics> </math>, three graphs on the bottom) used to distribute the total external force and moment among the two feet. Figure illustrates the curve of the GRF&Ms of the right foot between the events of left heel strike and right toe off (second double stance phase) expressed in the coordinate system defined by the walking direction. Continuous lines indicate the curves obtained from the average values across all subjects and trials of our dataset, whereas dashed lines indicate the curves proposed by Ren et al. [<a href="#B19-sensors-17-00075" class="html-bibr">19</a>].</p> "> Figure 4
<p>A state machine to detect the current state of the gait cycle, based on the previous state and a condition on the velocity of the heel or toe. The velocity <math display="inline"> <semantics> <msub> <mi>v</mi> <mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics> </math> is equal to the norm of the average velocity of the pelvis segment for each trial.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Block diagram of the algorithm used to estimate the GRF&M from anthropometry and inertial motion capture. <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">p</mi> </semantics> </math> = position, <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">v</mi> </semantics> </math> = velocity, <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">a</mi> </semantics> </math> = acceleration, <b><span class="html-italic">ω</span></b> = angular velocity, <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mover accent="true"> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">ω</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </semantics> </math> = angular acceleration, <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">F</mi> </semantics> </math> = force, <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">M</mi> </semantics> </math> = moment, <span class="html-italic">t</span> = time, <span class="html-italic">d</span> = anthropometric dimensions, <span class="html-italic">m</span> = mass, <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">R</mi> </semantics> </math> = radius of gyration, <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mi mathvariant="bold">J</mi> </semantics> </math> = inertia tensor. Superscript “<math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </semantics> </math>” indicates quantities derived directly from the IMC system, and <span class="html-italic">w</span> denotes quantities expressed in the coordinate system defined by the walking direction. Subscript <span class="html-italic">i</span> indicates a variable of the <span class="html-italic">i</span>-th segment. Additional subscript <span class="html-italic">o</span> denotes that a linear variable is expressed in the origin of the segment, whereas no additional subscript denotes that it is expressed in the center of mass of the segment. Subscript <math display="inline"> <semantics> <mrow> <mi>e</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </semantics> </math> = external, <span class="html-italic">R</span> = right, <span class="html-italic">L</span> = left.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Ground reaction forces and moments (GRF&M) estimated using IMC (mean (thin grey line) ±1 SD around mean (shaded area)), compared with measured FP data (mean (thick black line) (±1 SD (thin black lines)) during normal walking. Curve magnitudes are normalized to body weight and body weight times body height for the GRF and GRM, respectively. Averaged over right and left steps of all 11 subjects.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Ground reaction forces and moments (GRF&M) estimated using OMC (mean (thin grey line) ±1 SD around mean (shaded area)), compared with measured FP data (mean (thick black line) (±1 SD (thin black lines)) during normal walking. Curve magnitudes are normalized to body weight and body weight times body height for the GRF and GRM, respectively. Averaged over right and left steps of all 11 subjects.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>A subject in the wearable instrumentation, indicating the placement of the 53 retroreflective markers on the human body segments. All markers apart from clavicle, sternum and C7 are placed on the left side in a mirrored way.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Experimental Protocol
2.2. Data Processing: IMC System
- Head-neck segment, formed by constraining the relative movement between head and neck segments. Kinematics were derived from the orientation of the IMU mounted on the head.
- Upper trunk segment, formed by constraining the relative movement between T8 and T12, T8 and right shoulder and T8 and left shoulder segments. Kinematics were derived from the orientation of the IMU mounted on the sternum.
- Middle trunk segment, formed by constraining the relative movement between L3 and L5 segments. Kinematics were derived from interpolation between the upper trunk and pelvis segment.
- Foot-toe, formed by constraining the relative movement between foot and toe segments. Kinematics were derived from the orientation of the IMU mounted on the foot.
- the global coordinate system of the IMC system (), in which the anterior axis points to the magnetic north, the vertical axis matches the direction of the gravitational acceleration and the lateral axis perpendicular to these axes, such that a right-handed coordinate frame is formed
- the walking coordinate system (), which is defined by the same vertical, but has the anterior axes pointing in the walking direction, which means the difference between the two systems is only a rotation around the vertical; the walking direction was derived from known initial and final positions of the pelvis segment and assuming that the subjects walked approximately in a straight line throughout the trial
2.3. Data Analysis: Reference Lab System
- DS1: first double stance phase of the ipsilateral foot, between a heel strike of the ipsilateral foot and a toe-off of the contralateral foot.
- DS2: second double stance phase of the ipsilateral foot, between a heel strike of the contralateral foot and a toe-off of the ipsilateral foot.
- SS: single stance phase of the ipsilateral foot, between a toe-off of the contralateral foot and heel strike of the contralateral foot.
- In the early stance (ES) phase: the maximum values of lateral and vertical GRF and minimum value of anterior GRF.
- In the middle stance (MS) phase: the minimum value of the vertical GRF.
- In the late stance (LS) phase: the maximum values of the GRF components and transverse GRM and the minimum values of frontal and sagittal GRM components.
3. Results
3.1. Accuracy Analysis
3.2. Sensitivity Analysis
4. Discussion
4.1. Comparison with Reported Optical-Based Estimation
4.2. Limitations and Sources of Error
4.3. Future Work
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BMI | body mass index |
COP | center of pressure |
FP | force plate |
FW | fast walking |
GRF | ground reaction force |
GRM | ground reaction moment |
GRF&M | ground reaction force and moment |
IMC | inertial motion capture |
IMU | inertial measurement unit |
NW | self-selected normal walking |
OMC | optical motion capture |
rRMSE | relative root mean square error |
RMSE | root mean square error |
SW | slow walking |
Appendix A. Retroreflective Marker Protocol
Label | Placement | Label | Placement | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Right | Left | Right | Left | Center | ||
RHDA | LHDA | Head Anterior | RKNL | LKNL | Knee Lateral Epicondyle | |
RHDP | LHDP | Head Posterior | RKNM | LKNM | Knee Medial Epicondyle | |
RSHO | LSHO | Acromio-clavicular Joint | RSHS | LSHS | Shank Superior | |
RUPA | LUPA | Triceps Brachii | RSHI | LSHI | Shank Inferior | |
RELB | LELB | Elbow Lateral Epicondyle | RSHL | LSHL | Shank Lateral | |
RWRL | LWRL | Radial Styloid | RANL | LANL | Lateral malleolus | |
RWRM | LWRM | Ulnar Styloid | RANM | LANM | Medial malleolus | |
RFIL | LFIL | Second Metacarpal Head | RTOM | LTOM | First Metatarsal | |
RFIM | LFIM | Fifth Metacarpal Head | RTOE | LTOE | Third Metatarsal | |
RASI | LASI | Anterior Superior Iliac Spine | RTOL | LTOL | Fifth Metatarsal | |
RPSI | LPSI | Posterior Superior Iliac Spine | RHEE | LHEE | Calcaneus | |
RTHS | LTHS | Thigh Superior | C7 | Seventh Cervical Vertebrae | ||
RTHI | LTHI | Thigh Inferior | CLAV | Jugular Notch | ||
RTHL | LTHL | Thigh Lateral | STRN | Xiphoid Process of the Sternum |
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De Leva 1996 | Xsens MVN | m (%) | (%) | (%) | (%) | (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Definition | Equivalent | |||||
Head | Head + Neck | 6.94 | 50.02 | 30.3 | 31.5 | 26.1 |
Upper Trunk | T8 + T12 + Shoulders | 15.96 | 50.66 | 50.5 | 32 | 46.5 |
Middle Trunk | L5 + L3 | 16.33 | 45.02 | 48.2 | 38.3 | 46.8 |
Pelvis | Pelvis | 11.17 | 61.15 | 61.5 | 55.1 | 58.7 |
Upper Arm | Upper Arm | 2.71 | 57.72 | 28.5 | 26.9 | 15.8 |
Forearm | Forearm | 1.62 | 45.74 | 27.6 | 26.5 | 12.1 |
Hand | Hand | 0.61 | 36.24 | 28.8 | 23.5 | 18.4 |
Upper Leg | Upper Leg | 14.16 | 40.95 | 32.9 | 32.9 | 14.9 |
Lower Leg | Lower Leg | 4.33 | 43.95 | 25.1 | 24.6 | 10.2 |
Foot | Foot + Toe | 1.37 | 44.15 | 25.7 | 24.5 | 12.4 |
Variable | First Double Stance | Right Single Stance | Second Double Stance | Left Single Stance |
---|---|---|---|---|
Inertial Motion Capture | Optical Motion Capture | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NW | SW | FW | NW | SW | FW | |
ρ | ||||||
Anterior | 0.965 | 0.955 | 0.950 | 0.977 | 0.974 | 0.977 |
Lateral | 0.862 | 0.853 | 0.821 | 0.814 | 0.814 | 0.757 |
Vertical | 0.992 | 0.990 | 0.986 | 0.993 | 0.991 | 0.987 |
RMSE | ||||||
Anterior | 0.034 (0.007) | 0.036 (0.012) | 0.047 (0.011) | 0.028 (0.005) | 0.029 (0.007) | 0.034 (0.006) |
Lateral | 0.017 (0.003) | 0.018 (0.005) | 0.022 (0.004) | 0.017 (0.003) | 0.018 (0.005) | 0.022 (0.004) |
Vertical | 0.063 (0.035) | 0.075 (0.039) | 0.090 (0.040) | 0.058 (0.031) | 0.067 (0.027) | 0.081 (0.025) |
rRMSE | ||||||
Anterior | 9.4 (2.5) | 10.4 (3.2) | 10.9 (3.1) | 7.4 (1.5) | 8.0 (1.9) | 7.5 (1.3) |
Lateral | 13.1 (2.8) | 13.8 (3.3) | 14.6 (3.1) | 14.2 (2.9) | 14.2 (3.3) | 15.5 (4.0) |
Vertical | 5.3 (3.1) | 6.3 (3.3) | 6.9 (3.0) | 4.8 (2.7) | 5.5 (2.2) | 6.1 (1.8) |
M | ||||||
Anterior | −26.0 (10.5) | −28.8 (10.5) | −30.2 (9.9) | 9.5 (3.2) | 10.5 (3.5) | 11.0 (3.1) |
Lateral | 23.1 (10.7) | 24.6 (15.9) | 28.8 (13.2) | 14.1 (3.5) | 14.7 (4.3) | 16.1 (5.3) |
Vertical | −1.0 (2.4) | −1.2 (1.9) | −1.5 (1.6) | 3.1 (2.0) | 3.6 (2.0) | 4.2 (1.9) |
P | ||||||
Anterior | −22.0 (5.2) | −23.4 (5.9) | −22.5 (5.7) | 7.2 (2.0) | 7.7 (2.3) | 7.1 (1.3) |
Lateral | 8.5 (9.6) | 9.4 (11.0) | 12.7 (12.6) | 16.3 (3.7) | 16.5 (4.7) | 18.4 (5.7) |
Vertical | 0.3 (2.5) | 0.3 (1.9) | 0.6 (1.6) | 2.8 (1.8) | 3.2 (1.4) | 3.7 (1.2) |
Inertial Motion Capture | Optical Motion Capture | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DS1 | DS2 | SS | DS1 | DS2 | SS | |
ρ | ||||||
Anterior | 0.918 | 0.976 | 0.975 | 0.921 | 0.983 | 0.993 |
Lateral | 0.792 | 0.946 | 0.605 | 0.791 | 0.959 | 0.325 |
Vertical | 0.946 | 0.995 | 0.980 | 0.936 | 0.997 | 0.984 |
RMSE | ||||||
Anterior | 0.058 (0.023) | 0.066 (0.025) | 0.033 (0.013) | 0.056 (0.018) | 0.055 (0.014) | 0.018 (0.007) |
Lateral | 0.030 (0.012) | 0.013 (0.007) | 0.022 (0.007) | 0.029 (0.011) | 0.013 (0.009) | 0.022 (0.007) |
Vertical | 0.143 (0.077) | 0.118 (0.075) | 0.042 (0.030) | 0.149 (0.058) | 0.092 (0.060) | 0.033 (0.018) |
rRMSE | ||||||
Anterior | 33.3 (10.8) | 38.3 (16.5) | 10.0 (3.6) | 32.1 (8.6) | 29.3 (9.6) | 5.2 (1.6) |
Lateral | 30.9 (11.7) | 25.5 (16.3) | 35.4 (8.9) | 29.7 (9.7) | 22.9 (19.0) | 34.6 (7.5) |
Vertical | 14.4 (6.7) | 12.1 (8.6) | 9.0 (5.2) | 14.2 (4.7) | 8.9 (9.1) | 6.5 (2.4) |
Inertial Motion Capture | Optical Motion Capture | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NW | SW | FW | NW | SW | FW | |
ρ | ||||||
Frontal | 0.710 | 0.707 | 0.709 | 0.684 | 0.675 | 0.652 |
Sagittal | 0.933 | 0.916 | 0.841 | 0.942 | 0.932 | 0.880 |
Transverse | 0.826 | 0.811 | 0.749 | 0.825 | 0.817 | 0.768 |
RMSE | ||||||
Frontal | 0.010 (0.004) | 0.010 (0.004) | 0.012 (0.004) | 0.008 (0.001) | 0.008 (0.002) | 0.009 (0.002) |
Sagittal | 0.013 (0.004) | 0.015 (0.006) | 0.020 (0.005) | 0.016 (0.006) | 0.019 (0.008) | 0.026 (0.006) |
Transverse | 0.003 (0.001) | 0.003 (0.001) | 0.004 (0.001) | 0.002 (0.001) | 0.003 (0.001) | 0.004 (0.001) |
rRMSE | ||||||
Frontal | 29.6 (9.3) | 30.2 (9.3) | 30.6 (8.0) | 22.7 (4.1) | 23.0 (4.6) | 23.5 (4.9) |
Sagittal | 12.4 (3.4) | 13.3 (3.8) | 16.1 (3.2) | 12.7 (3.5) | 13.7 (3.8) | 16.9 (2.7) |
Transverse | 18.2 (4.7) | 18.8 (4.8) | 21.6 (4.2) | 16.8 (4.5) | 17.6 (4.8) | 21.0 (4.3) |
M | ||||||
Frontal | 110.3 (146.3) | 116.6 (135.7) | 140.4 (116.1) | 63.0 (92.0) | 71.1 (94.9) | 77.0 (84.8) |
Sagittal | −0.7 (12.4) | 5.3 (19.0) | 22.5 (19.6) | 36.1 (14.6) | 41.2 (23.9) | 63.9 (22.6) |
Transverse | 49.6 (28.3) | 54.7 (33.7) | 75.9 (33.8) | 45.7 (27.5) | 54.1 (37.1) | 82.8 (40.9) |
P | ||||||
Frontal | 19.7 (8.5) | 21.5 (10.6) | 21.0 (9.0) | 23.8 (7.8) | 24.7 (8.5) | 25.2 (8.4) |
Sagittal | 13.1 (4.2) | 13.8 (4.9) | 16.9 (4.8) | 10.1 (2.8) | 11.2 (3.2) | 13.9 (2.4) |
Transverse | 18.0 (5.8) | 18.9 (6.2) | 21.0 (6.7) | 16.3 (3.9) | 17.1 (4.7) | 18.6 (5.0) |
Inertial Motion Capture | Optical Motion Capture | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DS1 | DS2 | SS | DS1 | DS2 | SS | |
ρ | ||||||
Frontal | 0.556 | 0.803 | 0.431 | 0.515 | 0.951 | 0.472 |
Sagittal | −0.262 | 0.994 | 0.940 | −0.137 | 0.997 | 0.943 |
Transverse | 0.379 | 0.958 | 0.913 | 0.528 | 0.966 | 0.858 |
RMSE | ||||||
Frontal | 0.010 (0.004) | 0.005 (0.004) | 0.014 (0.006) | 0.012 (0.005) | 0.004 (0.003) | 0.010 (0.003) |
Sagittal | 0.016 (0.007) | 0.019 (0.017) | 0.017 (0.006) | 0.027 (0.011) | 0.031 (0.023) | 0.017 (0.007) |
Transverse | 0.004 (0.002) | 0.003 (0.002) | 0.003 (0.001) | 0.005 (0.002) | 0.004 (0.003) | 0.003 (0.001) |
rRMSE | ||||||
Frontal | 60.3 (17.7) | 46.4 (28.4) | 54.8 (17.8) | 72.0 (30.7) | 37.2 (32.2) | 37.4 (7.4) |
Sagittal | 68.4 (16.2) | 22.2 (14.9) | 17.7 (5.2) | 95.4 (25.7) | 29.4 (22.1) | 15.1 (4.1) |
Transverse | 56.2 (16.7) | 31.3 (18.8) | 23.3 (7.1) | 61.8 (16.4) | 35.2 (30.8) | 19.8 (7.1) |
Inertial Motion Capture | Optical Motion Capture | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NW | SW | FW | NW | SW | FW | |
ρ | ||||||
Anterior COP | 0.803 | 0.777 | 0.526 | 0.884 | 0.818 | 0.702 |
Lateral COP | 0.559 | 0.546 | 0.522 | 0.619 | 0.596 | 0.574 |
Frictional Torque | 0.776 | 0.775 | 0.677 | 0.764 | 0.746 | 0.676 |
RMSE | ||||||
Anterior COP | 0.045 (0.013) | 0.050 (0.018) | 0.066 (0.016) | 0.044 (0.010) | 0.054 (0.016) | 0.065 (0.012) |
Lateral COP | 0.029 (0.012) | 0.031 (0.011) | 0.036 (0.011) | 0.024 (0.004) | 0.025 (0.006) | 0.027 (0.006) |
Frictional Torque | 0.004 (0.001) | 0.004 (0.002) | 0.005 (0.002) | 0.005 (0.002) | 0.005 (0.002) | 0.006 (0.002) |
rRMSE | ||||||
Anterior COP | 21.3 (5.3) | 22.5 (6.9) | 28.5 (5.7) | 19.9 (3.4) | 22.2 (5.0) | 25.4 (4.0) |
Lateral COP | 32.4 (10.9) | 34.5 (11.0) | 37.2 (9.8) | 28.3 (5.9) | 28.6 (5.4) | 29.2 (5.1) |
Frictional Torque | 23.5 (5.1) | 23.9 (6.1) | 27.6 (5.5) | 25.8 (7.1) | 26.5 (7.4) | 29.8 (5.9) |
Inertial Motion Capture | Optical Motion Capture | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NW | SW | FW | NW | SW | FW | |
Absolute (N/BW) | ||||||
Anterior GRF | 0.051 (0.027) | 0.055 (0.032) | 0.086 (0.024) | 0.049 (0.019) | 0.051 (0.023) | 0.071 (0.017) |
Anterior GRF | −0.072 (0.024) | −0.073 (0.032) | −0.100 (0.027) | −0.057 (0.016) | −0.058 (0.020) | −0.073 (0.020) |
Lateral GRF | 0.026 (0.018) | 0.024 (0.016) | 0.023 (0.016) | 0.000 (0.018) | 0.001 (0.020) | 0.002 (0.026) |
Lateral GRF | 0.007 (0.014) | 0.012 (0.020) | 0.027 (0.024) | 0.010 (0.015) | 0.015 (0.022) | 0.035 (0.024) |
Vertical GRF | −0.031 (0.016) | −0.031 (0.024) | −0.047 (0.023) | −0.018 (0.021) | −0.019 (0.025) | −0.036 (0.026) |
Vertical GRF | 0.019 (0.011) | 0.018 (0.012) | 0.022 (0.012) | 0.008 (0.008) | 0.007 (0.007) | 0.005 (0.009) |
Vertical GRF | −0.003 (0.035) | 0.004 (0.046) | 0.003 (0.055) | 0.044 (0.047) | 0.053 (0.064) | 0.073 (0.078) |
Frontal GRM | −0.001 (0.013) | −0.005 (0.015) | −0.014 (0.016) | −0.002 (0.006) | −0.003 (0.008) | −0.007 (0.010) |
Sagittal GRM | −0.027 (0.020) | −0.033 (0.029) | −0.062 (0.025) | −0.053 (0.023) | −0.063 (0.035) | −0.098 (0.029) |
Transverse GRM | 0.003 (0.003) | 0.004 (0.004) | 0.006 (0.005) | 0.006 (0.003) | 0.007 (0.006) | 0.013 (0.005) |
Relative (%) | ||||||
Anterior GRF | 25.1 (11.8) | 26.9 (15.8) | 34.5 (11.9) | 24.2 (7.7) | 25.3 (8.0) | 28.3 (7.1) |
Anterior GRF | −32.2 (12.6) | −32.5 (12.9) | −36.4 (9.4) | −25.0 (7.4) | −26.0 (7.6) | −26.5 (6.4) |
Lateral GRF | 65.9 (70.4) | 55.9 (59.4) | 50.7 (65.7) | 3.7 (38.4) | 8.5 (43.0) | 14.2 (54.2) |
Lateral GRF | 15.5 (36.9) | 32.5 (78.9) | 79.6 (124.5) | 19.8 (29.3) | 42.5 (104.6) | 111.2 (167.7) |
Vertical GRF | −2.8 (1.5) | −2.7 (2.0) | −3.8 (1.9) | −1.5 (2.0) | −1.6 (2.2) | −2.9 (2.0) |
Vertical GRF | 2.7 (1.6) | 2.8 (2.2) | 4.2 (2.6) | 1.1 (1.1) | 1.0 (1.2) | 1.0 (1.8) |
Vertical GRF | −0.2 (3.0) | 0.4 (4.1) | 0.4 (4.6) | 3.8 (4.1) | 4.7 (5.6) | 6.2 (6.7) |
Frontal GRM | −10.9 (71.0) | −42.5 (134.5) | −115.8 (195.8) | −22.3 (52.6) | −36.8 (120.2) | −82.1 (194.1) |
Sagittal GRM | −34.3 (25.0) | −41.8 (36.6) | −76.2 (33.3) | −66.8 (28.4) | −79.5 (44.1) | −120.8 (39.3) |
Transverse GRM | 46.2 (51.9) | 49.9 (57.2) | 72.5 (68.7) | 80.6 (60.2) | 102.3 (89.1) | 169.0 (109.2) |
Heel Strike Detection | |||
Threshold velocity | |||
Mean error (ms) | |||
Toe Off Detection | |||
Threshold velocity | |||
Mean error (ms) |
Frequency (Hz) | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RMSE change (%) | |||||||
Anterior | 48.56 | 23.30 | 7.45 | 0.00 | −1.48 | 0.57 | 4.41 |
Lateral | −13.78 | −10.59 | −5.39 | 0.00 | 7.72 | 18.07 | 29.89 |
Vertical | 17.61 | 6.93 | 2.26 | 0.00 | −1.02 | −1.26 | −0.96 |
Norm GRF | 43.56 | 20.34 | 6.23 | 0.00 | −0.52 | 2.45 | 7.23 |
Frontal | −14.94 | −12.27 | −6.51 | 0.00 | 7.78 | 15.76 | 24.79 |
Sagittal | 61.80 | 29.54 | 8.58 | 0.00 | −1.24 | 0.74 | 4.55 |
Transverse | −19.04 | −11.35 | −6.62 | 0.00 | 8.71 | 18.37 | 29.22 |
Norm GRM | 40.75 | 17.22 | 3.76 | 0.00 | 1.90 | 6.09 | 11.88 |
Ground Reaction Force | Ground Reaction Moment | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | Anterior | Lateral | Vertical | Frontal | Sagittal | Transverse | |
ρ | |||||||
This study (IMC) | 11 | 0.965 | 0.862 | 0.992 | 0.710 | 0.933 | 0.826 |
This study (OMC) | 11 | 0.977 | 0.814 | 0.993 | 0.684 | 0.942 | 0.825 |
Ren et al., 2008 * | 3 | 0.878 | 0.704 | 0.913 | 0.677 | 0.978 | 0.829 |
Oh et al., 2013 | 5 | 0.985 | 0.918 | 0.991 | 0.841 | 0.987 | 0.868 |
Fluit et al., 2014 | 9 | 0.957 | 0.818 | 0.957 | 0.684 | 0.922 | 0.704 |
rRMSE | |||||||
This study (IMC) | 11 | 9.4 (2.5) | 13.1 (2.8) | 5.3 (3.1) | 29.6 (9.3) | 12.4 (3.4) | 18.2 (4.7) |
This study (OMC) | 11 | 7.4 (1.5) | 14.2 (2.9) | 4.8 (2.7) | 22.7 (4.1) | 12.7(3.5) | 16.8 (4.5) |
Ren et al., 2008 | 3 | 10.9 (0.8) | 20.0 (2.7) | 5.6 (1.5) | 32.5 (4.3) | 12.2 (4.8) | 26.2 (9.4) |
Oh et al., 2013 | 5 | 7.3 (0.8) | 10.9 (1.8) | 5.8 (1.0) | 22.8 (4.9) | 9.9 (1.1) | 25.5 (4.5) |
Fluit et al., 2014 | 9 | 9.3 (2.0) | 14.9 (3.4) | 6.6 (1.1) | 22.9 (5.9) | 12.4 (3.5) | 40.6 (11.3) |
© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Karatsidis, A.; Bellusci, G.; Schepers, H.M.; De Zee, M.; Andersen, M.S.; Veltink, P.H. Estimation of Ground Reaction Forces and Moments During Gait Using Only Inertial Motion Capture. Sensors 2017, 17, 75. https://doi.org/10.3390/s17010075
Karatsidis A, Bellusci G, Schepers HM, De Zee M, Andersen MS, Veltink PH. Estimation of Ground Reaction Forces and Moments During Gait Using Only Inertial Motion Capture. Sensors. 2017; 17(1):75. https://doi.org/10.3390/s17010075
Chicago/Turabian StyleKaratsidis, Angelos, Giovanni Bellusci, H. Martin Schepers, Mark De Zee, Michael S. Andersen, and Peter H. Veltink. 2017. "Estimation of Ground Reaction Forces and Moments During Gait Using Only Inertial Motion Capture" Sensors 17, no. 1: 75. https://doi.org/10.3390/s17010075