Monitoring the Response of Roads and Railways to Seasonal Soil Movement with Persistent Scatterers Interferometry over Six UK Sites
"> Figure 1
<p>Study area extents shown with major soil group and infrastructure extent. Western sites—shown in red—include: (1) Bristol; (2) Bath; (3) Bournemouth. Eastern sites—shown in blue—include: (4) Grantham; (5) Kings Lynn; (6) Peterborough. The insert map locates the sites within the UK. Dashed red and blue outlines represent the area extent of the Sentinel 1 data frames (Western England—relative orbit number 30, Eastern England—relative orbit number 132). The locations of Meldon Quarry validation test site, Tadham Moor, and Redmere meteorological stations, have been shown in the insert map.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Daily Volumetric Water Content (VWC %) for the corresponding periods of PSI investigation for Western and Eastern England. VWC is measured at 10 cm depth from two in situ meteorological stations: Tadham Moor (Western England, 51.207099, −2.828639) is shown in red and Redmere (Eastern England, 52.443551, 0.433083) in blue.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Surface deformation map showing PSI values expressed as millimeters per year for the Six study areas. Dark red indicates subsidence of up to 30 mm year<sup>−1</sup> whilst Bright green indicates uplift of up to 30 mm year<sup>−1</sup>. Insert map shows the location of the sites in the UK.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Trends in vertical movement (mm) by major soil group and infrastructure type. Points show median value for all PSI points on an infrastructure type and major soil group. Solid line show a loess-smoothed trend through the plotted medians. Dashed lines identify 1st January. To ensure validity, classes with less than 100 PSI points have been removed from this plot (<a href="#remotesensing-09-00922-t005" class="html-table">Table 5</a>).</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Median ground deformation (mm) for 1579 PSI points over Meldon Quarry, Dartmoor National Park (50.716084, −4.026326). The Solid line represents loess-smoothed trend through the plotted median PSI values. Grey ribbon indicates the inter-quartile range of Median values.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Minor Road, Major Road and Railways Infrastructure Movement
3.2. Validation Test Site
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Bristol | Bath | Bournemouth | ||||
Date | Bperp | Btemp | Bperp | Btemp | Bperp | Btemp |
19 November 2015 | −51.04 m | −240 | −49.76 m | −240 | −48.22 m | −240 |
1 December 2015 | −26.69 m | −228 | −25.62 m | −228 | −23.93 m | −228 |
13 December 2015 | 36.48 m | −216 | 37.01 m | −216 | 36.28 m | −216 |
6 January 2016 | 79.81 m | −193 | 80.28 m | −193 | 80.69 m | −193 |
18 January 2016 | −13.55 m | −180 | −12.22 m | −180 | −10.56 m | −180 |
30 January 2016 | −13.55 m | −168 | 34.51 m | −168 | 36.29 m | −168 |
11 February 2016 | 61.99 m | −156 | 62.75 m | −156 | 63.24 m | −156 |
30 March 2016 | −78.46 m | −108 | −77.46 m | −108 | −75.60 m | −108 |
23 April 2016 | 29.07 m | −84 | 28.88 m | −84 | 28.15 m | −84 |
10 June 2016 | −51.98 m | −36 | −51.34 m | −36 | −50.14 m | −36 |
4 July 2016 | 31.98 m | −12 | 31.74 m | −12 | 30.64 m | −12 |
16 July 2016 * | 0.00 m | 0 | 0.00 m | 0 | 0.00 m | 0 |
28 July 2016 | −17.18 m | 12 | −16.62 m | 12 | −18.17 m | 12 |
9 August 2016 | −41.68 m | 24 | −41.10 m | 24 | −39.72 m | 24 |
21 August 2016 | −23.03 m | 36 | −22.90 m | 36 | −23.06 m | 36 |
2 September 2016 | 118.61 m | 48 | 117.87 m | 48 | 116.71 m | 48 |
14 September 2016 | 32.81 m | 60 | 32.81 m | 60 | 32.63 m | 60 |
26 September 2016 | −24.01 m | 72 | −23.57 m | 72 | −23.30 m | 72 |
1 November 2016 | 69.37 m | 108 | 69.65 m | 108 | 69.59 m | 108 |
13 November 2016 | 74.92 m | 120 | 75.22 m | 120 | 74.93 m | 120 |
25 November 2016 | 32.35 m | 132 | 33.09 m | 132 | 34.33 m | 132 |
19 December 2016 | −37.74 m | 156 | −36.24 m | 156 | −34.43 m | 156 |
31 December 2016 | 35.72 m | 168 | 36.40 m | 168 | 36.39 m | 168 |
Grantham | Kings Lynn | Peterborough | ||||
Date | Bperp | Btemp | Bperp | Btemp | Bperp | Btemp |
13 January 2016 | 29.43 m | −216 | 33.8966 m | −216 | 31.4909 m | −216 |
6 February 2016 | 72.79 m | −192 | 73.777 m | −192 | 72.6985 m | −192 |
1 March 2016 | −89.76 m | −168 | −84.46 m | −168 | −88.76 m | −168 |
18 April 2016 | −19.41 m | −120 | −18.63 m | −120 | −19.28 m | −120 |
12-May-2016 | −105.47 m | −96 | −101.63 m | −96 | −104.62 m | −96 |
5 June 2016 | 31.86 m | −72 | 31.38 m | −72 | 30.18 m | −72 |
29 June 2016 | −62.16 m | −48 | −60.12 m | −48 | −61.79 m | −48 |
23 July 2016 | 8.829 m | −24 | 9.02 m | −24 | 9.028 m | −24 |
4 August 2016 | 12.73 m | −12 | 12.8 m | −12 | 12.63 m | −12 |
16 August 2016 * | 0.00 m | 0 | 0.00 m | 0 | 0.00 m | 0 |
9 September 2016 | −72.56 m | 24 | −69.2 m | 24 | −71.73 m | 24 |
21 September 2016 | −79.30 m | 36 | −75.10 m | 36 | −77.98 m | 36 |
3 October 2016 | 46.36 m | 48 | 46.49 m | 48 | 46.15 m | 48 |
15 October 2016 | 71.74 m | 60 | 72.11 m | 60 | 71.76 m | 60 |
27 October 2016 | 21.81 m | 72 | 22.85 m | 72 | 20.59 m | 72 |
8 November 2016 | −42.22 m | 84 | −36.16 m | 84 | −41.21 m | 84 |
26 December 2016 | 75.52 m | 132 | 76.92 m | 132 | 75.13 m | 132 |
7 January 2017 | 26.39 m | 144 | 26.50 m | 144 | 23.90 m | 144 |
19 January 2017 | −21.13 m | 156 | −24.98 m | 156 | −19.71 m | 156 |
31 January 2017 | −27.96 m | 168 | −22.01 m | 168 | −26.86 m | 168 |
12 February 2017 | 53.10 m | 180 | 55.20 m | 180 | 53.38 m | 180 |
24 February 2017 | 58.00 m | 192 | 60.06 m | 192 | 58.65 m | 192 |
8 March 2017 | 37.62 m | 204 | 38.51 m | 204 | 38.01 m | 204 |
Major Soil Group Type | Description | Soil Movement Potential | WRB Classification |
---|---|---|---|
Brown soils | Widespread soils with predominantly brownish or reddish sub surface. They have no gleying above 40 cm depth and are mainly associated with agriculture land use. | Moderate-High | Arenosols Cambisols Luvisols Regosols |
Ground-water Gley soils | Soils normally developed over permeable materials which appear uniformly gleyed. These soils are subject to periodic waterlogging by fluctuating groundwater-tables. | High | Gleysols |
Lithomorphic soils | Often shallow soils which have been formed over bedrock, or soft unconsolidated material at 30 cm depth. | Moderate-Low | Arenosols Histosols Leptosols Phaeozems |
Pelosols | Slowly permeable clay soils with no gleyed subsurface horizon above 40 cm depth. These soils can show significant desiccation in dry seasons. | Moderate-High | Cambisols Luvisols |
Podzolic soils | Soils usually formed as a result of acid weathering conditions, and have an unincorporated acid layer at their surface. | Moderate-Low | Podzols Umbrisols |
Surface-water Gley soils | Seasonally waterlogged, and slowly permeable soils, which appear predominantly mottled above 40 cm depth. | High | Planosols Stagnosols |
Peat soils | Organic soils derived from partially decomposed plant remains that accumulated under waterlogged conditions. | High | Histosols |
Study Site (Western or Eastern Area) | Area (km2) | Length of Minor Roads (km) | Length of Major Roads (km) | Length of Railways (km) | Historic Mining Present? | Urban Coverage Density |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bristol (W) | 118 | 817 | 108 | 34 | Yes | Mostly Urban |
Bath (W) | 165 | 265 | 76 | 31 | Yes | Urban/Rural |
Bournemouth (W) | 284 | 1207 | 126 | 22 | No | Mostly Urban |
Grantham (E) | 688 | 837 | 149 | 71 | No | Semi-Rural |
Peterborough (E) | 539 | 907 | 144 | 55 | No | Urban/Rural |
Kings Lynn (E) | 585 | 1261 | 190 | 130 | No | Semi-Rural |
Type | Study Area | Average PS Deformation Rate mm year−1 | Standard Deviation | Maximum Uplift Value mm year−1 | Minimum Subsidence Value mm year−1 | Number of PS Points | Density of PS (PS km) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Minor road (West) | Bristol | −0.24 | 3.18 | 25.05 | −21.35 | 16557 | 13.16 |
Bath | −0.60 | 3.00 | 11.90 | −23.52 | 4005 | 7.71 | |
Bournemouth | 0.26 | 3.09 | 23.16 | −25.34 | 16986 | 13.11 | |
Mean | −0.19 | 3.09 | 20.03 | −23.40 | 12516 | 11.32 | |
Major road (West) | Bristol | 0.04 | 2.83 | 16.13 | −21.91 | 2920 | 25.54 |
Bath | −0.83 | 2.91 | 17.29 | −18.28 | 1211 | 14.08 | |
Bournemouth | 0.30 | 2.87 | 15.44 | −22.78 | 1554 | 10.64 | |
Mean | −0.16 | 2.87 | 16.28 | −20.99 | 1891 | 16.75 | |
Railway (West) | Bristol | −0.84 | 4.30 | 21.99 | −18.92 | 688 | 22.93 |
Bath | −2.59 | 5.38 | 14.85 | −24.45 | 484 | 15.61 | |
Bournemouth | 0.14 | 4.07 | 19.22 | −15.28 | 487 | 18.03 | |
Mean | −1.09 | 4.58 | 18.68 | −19.55 | 553 | 18.85 | |
Minor road (East) | Grantham | −0.02 | 3.69 | 22.62 | −25.06 | 5005 | 5.46 |
Peterborough | 0.38 | 3.32 | 24.96 | −20.36 | 9504 | 10.39 | |
Kings Lynn | −0.25 | 2.91 | 23.47 | −18.39 | 3882 | 5.89 | |
Mean | 0.03 | 3.30 | 23.68 | −21.27 | 6130 | 7.24 | |
Major road (East) | Grantham | 0.03 | 3.87 | 20.76 | −24.89 | 1048 | 6.55 |
Peterborough | 0.24 | 3.08 | 25.56 | −14.38 | 2328 | 16.16 | |
Kings Lynn | −0.20 | 3.03 | 13.16 | −13.45 | 736 | 19.08 | |
Mean | 0.02 | 3.32 | 19.82 | −17.57 | 1370 | 13.93 | |
Railway (East) | Grantham | −0.01 | 4.27 | 18.05 | −19.14 | 1220 | 15.64 |
Peterborough | −1.59 | 5.57 | 23.40 | −20.67 | 1607 | 29.21 | |
Kings Lynn | −0.38 | 4.97 | 20.64 | −16.00 | 184 | 8.00 | |
Mean | −0.66 | 4.93 | 20.69 | −18.60 | 1003 | 17.61 |
Brown Soils | Ground-Water Gley Soils | Lithomorphic Soils | Pelosols | Pozolic Soils | Surface-Water Gley Soils | Peat Soils | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
West | Minor roads | 9276 | 1134 | 3925 | 7409 | 13490 | 2210 | 0 |
Major roads | 1990 | 440 | 768 | 882 | 1165 | 385 | 0 | |
Railways | 457 | 204 | 108 | 469 | 333 | 10 | 0 | |
East | Minor roads | 5028 | 7885 | 1549 | 2426 | 16 | 1428 | 0 |
Major roads | 887 | 1717 | 386 | 838 | 0 | 279 | 0 | |
Railways | 524 | 1284 | 291 | 354 | 0 | 445 | 113 |
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North, M.; Farewell, T.; Hallett, S.; Bertelle, A. Monitoring the Response of Roads and Railways to Seasonal Soil Movement with Persistent Scatterers Interferometry over Six UK Sites. Remote Sens. 2017, 9, 922. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9090922
North M, Farewell T, Hallett S, Bertelle A. Monitoring the Response of Roads and Railways to Seasonal Soil Movement with Persistent Scatterers Interferometry over Six UK Sites. Remote Sensing. 2017; 9(9):922. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9090922
Chicago/Turabian StyleNorth, Matthew, Timothy Farewell, Stephen Hallett, and Audrey Bertelle. 2017. "Monitoring the Response of Roads and Railways to Seasonal Soil Movement with Persistent Scatterers Interferometry over Six UK Sites" Remote Sensing 9, no. 9: 922. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9090922