A Semi-Analytical Model for Remote Sensing Retrieval of Suspended Sediment Concentration in the Gulf of Bohai, China
"> Figure 1
<p>Sample locations of 11 transects in the Gulf of Bohai from 2008 to 2011. Among the 11 transects, 4 transects in 2008 and 2009 were at the same locations. At each station, radiometric measurements were performed using a double channel spectrometer (ASD). Water samples were also gathered simultaneously.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Landsat reflectance at bands 1 to 4 before (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) and after (<b>e</b>–<b>h</b>) the atmospheric correction. The atmospheric correction was completed using Fast Line-of-sight Atmospheric Analysis of Spectra Hypercubes (FLAASH), an atmospheric correction module in ENVI<sup>®</sup>.</p> "> Figure 2 Cont.
<p>Landsat reflectance at bands 1 to 4 before (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) and after (<b>e</b>–<b>h</b>) the atmospheric correction. The atmospheric correction was completed using Fast Line-of-sight Atmospheric Analysis of Spectra Hypercubes (FLAASH), an atmospheric correction module in ENVI<sup>®</sup>.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>The graphs of the remote sensing reflectance spectra for the stations before (<b>a</b>) and after (<b>b</b>) atmospheric correction from band 1 to band 4.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>The flow diagram of developing the semi-analytical model. The procedure mainly includes three parts: Build a theoretical model between the apparent optical properties (AOPs) and inherent optical properties (IOPs) based on the quasi-analytical algorithm (QAA), select the sensitive band or a bands combination to develop a statistical model between IOPs and suspended sediment concentration (SSC) and combine the above two models to construct the semi-analytical model between AOPs and SSC.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Remote sensing reflectance (sr<sup>−1</sup>) corresponding to different wavelengths (nm) for selected SSC levels. Each curve at a given SSC level shows the relationship between the spectral ranges and reflectance levels.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>The relationship between inversed b<sub>bp</sub> using QAA and observed SSC. The two factors show a linear relationship (correlation coefficient <span class="html-italic">r</span> = 0.882).</p> "> Figure 7
<p>(<b>a</b>) The comparison of retrieved SSC levels using semi-analytical model and empirical model. (<b>b</b>) The first derivative functions of semi-analytical model and empirical model. (<b>c</b>) The relationship between observed SSC and SSC estimated by the two models.</p> "> Figure 7 Cont.
<p>(<b>a</b>) The comparison of retrieved SSC levels using semi-analytical model and empirical model. (<b>b</b>) The first derivative functions of semi-analytical model and empirical model. (<b>c</b>) The relationship between observed SSC and SSC estimated by the two models.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>The image map of SSC distribution derived from the atmospherically-corrected TM data using the semi-analytical model for the Gulf of Bohai.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data
2.2.1. In Situ Spectral Reflectance Data and SSC Data
Item | Min | Max | Mean | Samples Number |
---|---|---|---|---|
training data of SSC (mg∙L−1) | 2.1 | 208.7 * | 22.5 | 70 |
testing data of SSC (mg∙L−1) | 6.6 | 92.2 | 22.3 | 20 |
Particle size (µm) | 2.98 | 72.80 | 18.56 | 90 |
Chlorophyll-a concentration (µg∙L−1) | 0.11 | 1.66 | 0.57 | 20 |
2.2.2. Remote Sensing Data
2.3. IOPs Retrieval of the Waters Based on QAA
2.4. Developing the Semi-Analytical Model for SSC Retrieval
2.4.1. The Process of Developing the Semi-Analytical Model
2.4.2. Developing the Semi-Analytical Model for SSC Retrieval
u | u(B2) | u(B3) | u(B4) | u(B4/B3) | u(B4/B2) | u(B4/B1) | u(B3/B2) | u(B3/B1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R * | 0.563 | 0.764 | 0.914 | 0.501 | 0.813 | 0.851 | 0.783 | 0.789 |
Model Type | Linear | Logarithmic | Quadratic | Power | Exponential |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
R2 | 0.835 | 0.510 | 0.922 | 0.536 | 0.598 |
2.5. Statistical Criteria for Model Performance
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Spectral Characteristics of Waters
3.2. The Relationship between Inversed bbp and SSC
3.3. Model Evaluation
3.3.1. The Accuracy of the Model
3.3.2. Comparing the Performance with Empirical Model
Model Type | Largest RE (%) | Smallest RE (%) | Mean RE (%) | RMSE (mg L−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Semi-analytical | 31.20 | 0.94 | 12.32 | 4.53 |
Empirical | 46.24 | 0.08 | 17.67 | 5.59 |
The range of SSC (mg∙L−1) | 0–10 | 10–20 | 20–50 | >50 |
---|---|---|---|---|
MAR * (in log scale/mg∙L−1) | 0.22 | 0.16 | 0.35 | 0.13 |
No. | Nt/Nm* | Retrieval Models | Mean RE (%) | Model Type | Authors |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 90/70 | SSC = 8.602−1805.26 × Rrs(B4) + 900713.14 × [Rrs(B4)]2 | 12.32 | Semi-analytical | Kong, J.L. |
2 | 32/25 | ln SPM = 153.85 × Rrs(B3) + 1.11 | 21.19 | Empirical | Li, J.G. [65] |
3 | 45/33 | lg(SPM) = −2.1302 − 1.0205 × Rrs(709)/Rrs(443) + 3.8018 × (Rrs(709)/Rrs(560)) | 28.30 | Empirical | Chen, L. [73] |
4 | 34/23 | SSC = 53.273 × (Rrs(645)/Rrs(555))2 − 31.05 × (Rrs(645)/Rrs(555)) + 8.357 | 29.48 | Empirical | Cui, J. [74] |
5 | 36/29 | SSC = 319.637 × (Rrs(645)/Rrs(555))2 − 379.247 × (Rrs(645)/Rrs(555)) + 120.905 | 15.96 | Empirical | Cui, J. [74] |
3.4. Application of the Model
SSC (mg·L−1) | 0–10 | 10–20 | 20–30 | 30–40 | 40–50 | 50–100 | 100–200 | >200 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Area (km2) | 227.12 | 4927.00 | 3625.32 | 458.82 | 167.82 | 184.67 | 137.57 | 431.07 |
Percentage (%) | 2.24 | 48.50 | 35.68 | 4.52 | 1.65 | 1.81 | 1.35 | 4.24 |
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Kong, J.-L.; Sun, X.-M.; Wong, D.W.; Chen, Y.; Yang, J.; Yan, Y.; Wang, L.-X. A Semi-Analytical Model for Remote Sensing Retrieval of Suspended Sediment Concentration in the Gulf of Bohai, China. Remote Sens. 2015, 7, 5373-5397. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70505373
Kong J-L, Sun X-M, Wong DW, Chen Y, Yang J, Yan Y, Wang L-X. A Semi-Analytical Model for Remote Sensing Retrieval of Suspended Sediment Concentration in the Gulf of Bohai, China. Remote Sensing. 2015; 7(5):5373-5397. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70505373
Chicago/Turabian StyleKong, Jin-Ling, Xiao-Ming Sun, David W. Wong, Yan Chen, Jing Yang, Ying Yan, and Li-Xia Wang. 2015. "A Semi-Analytical Model for Remote Sensing Retrieval of Suspended Sediment Concentration in the Gulf of Bohai, China" Remote Sensing 7, no. 5: 5373-5397. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70505373