Local Effects of Forests on Temperatures across Europe
"> Figure 1
<p>The spatial distributions of land cover types, paired sites and selected windows. The green and orange backgrounds refer to areas with forests and open lands, respectively. The paired sites are marked with red triangles. The blue points refer to the selected windows (0.4 × 0.4°), which have areas with more than 10% of forests and open land. The small panels in the below and right show the sample window numbers at each 1° (longitude and latitude) band.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>The spatial distributions of the annual mean (<b>a</b>) daytime, (<b>b</b>) nighttime and (<b>c</b>) daily average ΔLST (forest minus open land) in Europe during the period 2003–2016. The small panels in the below and right of each ΔLST show the longitudinal and latitudinal zonal average of each ΔLST for every 1° bin. The blue lines represent the 95% confidence interval (CI) estimated by the t-test.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>The spatial distributions of the annual mean (<b>a</b>) maximum, (<b>b</b>) minimum and (<b>c</b>) daily average ΔT (forest minus open land) in Europe. The small panels in the below and right show the longitudinal and latitudinal zonal average of each ΔT for every 1° bin. The background color refers to the elevation, which gradually increases from black to white.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Spatiotemporal patterns of latitudinal variations in (<b>a</b>) daytime, (<b>b</b>) nighttime, (<b>c</b>) daily LST differences (forest minus open land) and longitudinal variations in (<b>d</b>) daytime, (<b>e</b>) nighttime and (<b>f</b>) daily LST differences (forest minus open land) during the period 2003–2016. Grids with cross symbols indicate that the LST differences are significant at the 95% CI by the <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Comparison of seasonal variations in daily maximum, daily minimum and daily mean temperature differences in three latitudinal (<b>a</b>) south of 45°N, (<b>c</b>) between 45°N and 55°N, (<b>e</b>) north of 55°N, and longitudinal (<b>b</b>) west of 5°E, (<b>d</b>) between 5°E and 15°E, (<b>f</b>) east of 15°E ranges. The red solid and red dashed lines indicate Tmax for forests and open lands, respectively. The blue solid and blue dashed lines indicate Tmin for forests and open lands, respectively. The black solid line indicates the Tmean difference from forests minus open lands.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>The relationships between (<b>a</b>) background LST and daily LST differences (forest minus open land) and (<b>b</b>) background air temperature and daily mean air temperature differences (forest minus open land). The daily LST differences are binned and averaged on 1° background LST intervals (i.e., the LST for all pixels within a window). The daily mean air temperature differences are binned and averaged on 1° grids for background air temperature (i.e., air temperatures of forest sites). The thin black bars represent the 95% confidence interval (CI) by the <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>The relationship between background LST and daily LST differences (forest minus open land) during various years. (<b>a</b>) The rate of change for daily LST differences under different background LSTs. The number 0.1 indicates that the daily LST difference increases by 0.1 °C when the background LST increases by 1 °C. (<b>b</b>) Significance of the relationship between background LST and daily LST differences.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>The relationship between background LST and daily LST differences (forest minus open land) in (<b>a</b>) spring, (<b>b</b>) summer, (<b>c</b>) autumn, and (<b>d</b>) winter during various years. Spring, summer, autumn and winter are defined by March and May, June and August, September and November, and December and February, respectively. The significance map of the four seasons is similar to <a href="#remotesensing-10-00529-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a>b and is not shown here.</p> "> Figure 9
<p>The spatial distributions of annual mean (<b>a</b>) albedo (%) and (<b>b</b>) ET differences (forest minus open land) in Europe. The periods used to analyze albedo and ET differences are 2003–2016 and 2003–2014, respectively. The below and right small panels for each difference show the longitudinal and latitudinal zonal averages for every 1° bin. The blue lines represent the 95% confidence interval (CI) estimated by the <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Spatiotemporal patterns of (<b>a</b>) latitudinal and (<b>c</b>) longitudinal variations in albedo (%) differences (forest minus open land) during the period 2003–2016 and (<b>b</b>) latitudinal and (<b>d</b>) longitudinal variations in ET differences (forest minus open land) during the period 2003–2014. Grids with cross symbols indicate differences that are significant at the 95% CI by the <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>The relationship between the annual mean background LST and the annual mean (<b>a</b>) albedo (%) differences (forest minus open land) and (<b>b</b>) ET differences (forest minus open land) during various years. The number 0.1 in (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) indicates that the albedo and ET differences increase by 0.1% and 0.1 mm/day, respectively, when the background LST increases by 1 °C. Only when the valid year of a window was greater than five years was the relationship calculated.</p> "> Figure 11 Cont.
<p>The relationship between the annual mean background LST and the annual mean (<b>a</b>) albedo (%) differences (forest minus open land) and (<b>b</b>) ET differences (forest minus open land) during various years. The number 0.1 in (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) indicates that the albedo and ET differences increase by 0.1% and 0.1 mm/day, respectively, when the background LST increases by 1 °C. Only when the valid year of a window was greater than five years was the relationship calculated.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>Annual mean air temperatures at different latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere (north of 10°N) during the period 2003–2016, where NA represents North America, EU represents Europe, AS represents Asia and NH represents the Northern Hemisphere. The dotted line represents 6.5 °C.</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Interannual variability of (<b>a</b>) the seasonal mean LST in summer, the difference in ET (forest minus open land) in summer, and background LST in summer and (<b>b</b>) the seasonal mean LST in spring, the difference in albedo (forest minus open land) in spring, and the background LST in spring.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Data and Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Data Processing
2.2.1. Data Aggregation Strategy
2.2.2. Window Searching Strategy
2.2.3. Paired Sites Strategy
2.2.4. Temperature Differences and Elevation Adjustment Strategy
3. Results
3.1. Geographic Patterns in Temperature Difference
3.2. Seasonal Patterns in Temperature Differences
3.3. Effects of Background Temperatures on the Effects of Forests
3.4. Drivers of Temperature Difference
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Produce Name | Product Type | Resolution | Period Considered |
---|---|---|---|
MYD11A2 (V6) | LST | 1 km | 2003–2016 |
MCD43B3 (V5) | Albedo | 1 km | 2003–2016 |
MOD16A2 (V5) | ET | 1 km | 2003–2014 |
MCD12Q1 (V5) | Land cover type | 500 m | 2012 |
Forest flux sites | Air temperature | Valid year from 1996–2016 |
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Tang, B.; Zhao, X.; Zhao, W. Local Effects of Forests on Temperatures across Europe. Remote Sens. 2018, 10, 529. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10040529
Tang B, Zhao X, Zhao W. Local Effects of Forests on Temperatures across Europe. Remote Sensing. 2018; 10(4):529. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10040529
Chicago/Turabian StyleTang, Bijian, Xiang Zhao, and Wenqian Zhao. 2018. "Local Effects of Forests on Temperatures across Europe" Remote Sensing 10, no. 4: 529. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10040529