Evaluation of the Ability of Spectral Indices of Hydrocarbons and Seawater for Identifying Oil Slicks Utilizing Hyperspectral Images
"> Figure 1
<p>Picture (<b>a</b>) is the experimental data image, false-color composite with bands R: 678 nm, G: 540 nm, and B: 443 nm. Picture (<b>b</b>) is study area scope was obtained via ENVI and Google Earth software.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Three training images used to evaluate the ability of spectral indices to identify diverse thicknesses of oil slicks. Pictures (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) are false-color composited training images (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>).</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Three test areas extracted from the original hyperspectral image to validate the conclusion. Training areas are distinct from these test areas. Pictures (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) are false-color composited test images (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>).</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Oil slick thickness descriptions.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Images of different thicknesses of oil slicks and their spectral curves.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Flow chart of the experimental process (HSI = hyperspectral image).</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Differential line graphs of spectral indices of hydrocarbons and seawater are summed from the training results. Pictures (<b>a</b>–<b>h</b>) are differential line graphs of FI, RAI, HI, Rg, Rr, WAF, Chl, and CDOM, respectively.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Images (<b>b</b>–<b>d</b>) are identification results for emulsions and sheens; red pixels represent identified emulsions, and cyan pixels represent sheens. Photo (<b>a</b>) is the original training image, and (<b>b</b>–<b>d</b>) are the identification results of FI (fluorescence index), RR (hydrocarbons), and CDOM (Colored Dissolved Organic Matter), respectively.</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Spectral curve analysis identifying emulsions (red) and sheens (cyan) using FI, RR, and CDOM.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Images (<b>b</b>–<b>d</b>) are identification results for seawater and sheens; cyan pixels represent identified sheens and blue pixels represent seawater. Photo (<b>a</b>) is the original training image, and (<b>b</b>–<b>d</b>) are identification results for FI, RR, and CHL, respectively.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>Spectral curve analysis for identifying sheens (cyan) and seawater (blue) by FI, RR, and CHL.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>Photo (<b>a</b>) is the original training image, and image; (<b>b</b>) is the identification result: red pixels represent identified emulsions, black pixels are oil slicks of code 5, yellow pixels are oil slicks of code 4, and cyan pixels are sheens.</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Spectral curve analysis identifying different thickness of oil slicks by RR. Red, black, yellow, cyan, and blue lines represent emulsions, oil slicks of code 5, oil slicks of code 4, oil slicks of code 1–3, and seawater, respectively.</p> "> Figure 14
<p>Photo (<b>a</b>) is the original training image, and picture (<b>b</b>) is the identification result. In the results, red pixels represent identified emulsions, black pixels are oil slicks of code 5, yellow pixels are oil slicks of code 4, and cyan pixels are sheens.</p> "> Figure 15
<p>Bands of spectral indices used by RR, RG, and WAF. Red, black, yellow, cyan, and blue lines represent emulsions, oil slicks of code 5, oil slicks of code 4, oil slicks of code 1–3, and seawater, respectively.</p> "> Figure 16
<p>Bands used for spectral indices of hydrocarbons. Red, black, yellow, cyan, and blue lines represent emulsions, oil slicks of code 5, oil slicks of code 4, oil slicks of code 1–3, and seawater, respectively.</p> "> Figure 17
<p>Bands used for seawater spectral indices. Red, black, yellow, cyan, and blue lines represent emulsions, oil slicks of code 5, oil slicks of code 4, oil slicks of code 1–3, and seawater, respectively.</p> "> Figure 18
<p>Three test areas used to validate the complementarity of spectral indices of hydrocarbons and seawater. Pictures (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>,<b>e</b>) are the false-color composited test images (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>,<b>c</b>), respectively. Pictures (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>,<b>f</b>) are the identification results of test images (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>,<b>c</b>), respectively.</p> "> Figure 19
<p>Photo (<b>a,b</b>): thickness results from USGS 2010. Picture (<b>c</b>): thickness results produced in this work.</p> "> Figure 20
<p>The identification results of this research and MODIS image captured at UTC 16:40 17 May 2010.</p> "> Figure 21
<p>The identified results of this research and ASAR backscatter image captured at UTC 03:48 18 May 2010.</p> "> Figure 22
<p>Identification results of another Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) image captured on 6 May 2010. Picture (<b>a</b>) is the false-color AVIRIS composited image and picture (<b>b</b>) is the identification result of it.</p> "> Figure 23
<p>Wind image of Gulf of Mexico on 6 May 2010.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Preprocessing
2.3. Oil Slick Properties
2.4. Spectral Indices of Hydrocarbons and Seawater
2.5. Evaluation Measurement
- Differential line graphs based on the training samples.
- The proposed IS measurement.
- Test experiments.
2.6. Experimental Process
3. Results
3.1. Evaluation Results
- The values of , , and are larger than zero, which means that FI, RR (hydrocarbons), and CDOM can be used to distinguish emulsions from seawater and other oil slicks. The “*” means the other categories of the element set {seawater, sheens, oil slicks of code 4, oil slicks of code 5, emulsions}.
- The values of , , and are larger than zero, which means that FI, RR, and CHL may be able to distinguish seawater from oil-contaminated areas. Although the values of are nonzero, is 0.0043 which is too close to zero, so CDOM was not considered during test experiments.
- RR is the only spectral characteristic for which all the non-diagonal elements larger than zero, which means that RR may be able to identify seawater and all thicknesses of oil slicks.
- There is an obvious complementarity of spectral indices of hydrocarbon substance and spectral indices of seawater.
3.2. Identification Results
3.2.1. Results of Detecting Emulsions
3.2.2. Results of Detecting Sheens
3.2.3. Detection of Oil Slicks by Hydrocarbons (RR)
- In the differential line graph of RR (Figure 7), the ranges of sheens and continuous true color oil slicks are small, making it very likely that RR will misidentify sheens and oil slicks of code 5.
- In the spectral curves of seawater and oil slicks in red bands (Figure 13), the curves of sheens and oil slicks of code 5 are nearly coincident, indicating that it is not possible to distinguish sheens and continuous true color oil slicks using RR. In addition, it is difficult for RR to distinguish oil slicks of code 5 from oil slicks of code 4 and sheens according to the spectral analysis.
- In the IS matrix of RR, the IS values of oil slicks of code 5 and sheens are 0.005, which is too close to 0 meaning that RR cannot reliably distinguish between oil slicks of code 5 and sheens. This result is also consistent with the actual recognition results.
3.2.4. Detection of Oil Slicks by Complementary Spectral Indices
4. Discussion
4.1. Applicability of Hydrocarbon Spectral Indices
4.2. Applicability of Seawater Spectral Indices
4.3. Complementarity
4.4. Accuracy and Applicability
- (1)
- The experimental AVIRIS image was captured at UTC 20:46 17 May 2010, which was later than the MODIS image (UTC 16:40 May 17) and earlier than the ASAR image (UTC 03:48 May 18). The oil slicks in the earlier captured MODIS image do not reach the boundary identified by AVIRIS, but the oil slicks in the later captured ASAR image cover the identified boundary, which means oil slicks drifted during the interval time.
- (2)
- Sheens at the boundary between oil slicks and seawater cannot be observed from the MODIS and ASAR backscattering images.
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Thickness | Code | Bonn Agreement Oil Appearance Code | Open Water Oil Identification Job Aid |
---|---|---|---|
Thinner | 1 | Sheen (silver/gray) | Silver |
2 | Rainbow | Rainbow | |
3 | Metallic | Metallic | |
4 | Discontinuous true oil color | Transitional dark | |
5 | Continuous true oil color | Dark | |
Thicker | No code | Emulsion | Emulsion |
Representation | Characteristic | Formula | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Hydrocarbons | Fluorescence Index, FI | [25] | |
Hydrocarbons | Rotation-Absorption Index, RAI | [25] | |
Hydrocarbons | Hydrocarbon Index, HI | [26] | |
Hydrocarbons | Reflectance of Green, RG | [27] | |
Hydrocarbons | Reflectance of Red, RR | [27] | |
Seawater | Water Absorption Feature, WAF | [28] | |
Seawater | Chlorophyll, CHL | [29] | |
Seawater | Colored Dissolved Organic Matter, CDOM | [30] |
Characteristics | IS Matrixes | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FI | Seawater | Sheens | Code 4 | Code 5 | Emulsions | |
Seawater | 0 | 0.3368 | 1.2121 | 1.1313 | 1.697 | |
Sheens | 0.3368 | 0 | 0.4848 | 0.404 | 0.9697 | |
Code4 | 1.2121 | 0.4848 | 0 | 0 | 0.3232 | |
Code5 | 1.1313 | 0.404 | 0 | 0 | 0.4848 | |
Emulsions | 1.697 | 0.9697 | 0.3232 | 0.4848 | 0 | |
RAI | Seawater | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.1347 |
Sheens | 0 | 0 | 0.0278 | 0.0589 | 0.2443 | |
Code4 | 0 | 0.0278 | 0 | 0 | 0.1746 | |
Code5 | 0 | 0.0589 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Emulsions | 0.1347 | 0.2443 | 0.1746 | 0 | 0 | |
HI | Seawater | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.2683 | 0 |
Sheens | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.3415 | |
Code4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.3182 | |
Code5 | 1.2683 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Emulsions | 0 | 1.3415 | 1.3182 | 0 | 0 | |
RG | Seawater | 0 | 2.3793 | 2.9655 | 0 | 1.3448 |
Sheens | 2.3793 | 0 | 0 | 2.1379 | 0 | |
Code4 | 2.9655 | 0 | 0 | 2.7241 | 0 | |
Code5 | 0 | 2.1379 | 2.7241 | 0 | 1.1034 | |
Emulsions | 1.3448 | 0 | 0 | 1.1034 | 0 | |
RR | Seawater | 0 | 0.1038 | 0.5557 | 0.2504 | 1.0443 |
Sheens | 0.1038 | 0 | 0.3603 | 0.005 | 0.8489 | |
Code4 | 0.5557 | 0.3603 | 0 | 0.2443 | 0.4031 | |
Code5 | 0.2504 | 0.005 | 0.2443 | 0 | 0.7328 | |
Emulsions | 1.0443 | 0.8489 | 0.4031 | 0.7328 | 0 | |
WAF | Seawater | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.9371 | 0.53 |
Sheens | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.5485 | 0.1413 | |
Code4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.9247 | 0.5175 | |
Code5 | 1.9371 | 1.5485 | 1.9247 | 0 | 0 | |
Emulsions | 0.53 | 0.1413 | 0.5175 | 0 | 0 | |
CHL | Seawater | 0 | 0.6809 | 0.8298 | 0.5532 | 0.7872 |
Sheens | 0.6809 | 0 | 0.1064 | 0.1064 | 0.0638 | |
Code4 | 0.8298 | 0.1064 | 0 | 0.2553 | 0 | |
Code5 | 0.5532 | 0.1064 | 0.2553 | 0 | 0.2128 | |
Emulsions | 0.7872 | 0.0638 | 0 | 0.2128 | 0 | |
CDOM | Seawater | 0 | 0.0043 | 0.0991 | 0.115 | 0.376 |
Sheens | 0.0043 | 0 | 0.0842 | 0.1001 | 0.3611 | |
Code4 | 0.0991 | 0.0842 | 0 | 0 | 0.2503 | |
Code5 | 0.115 | 0.1001 | 0 | 0 | 0.245 | |
Emulsions | 0.376 | 0.3611 | 0.2503 | 0.245 | 0 |
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Zhao, D.; Cheng, X.; Zhang, H.; Niu, Y.; Qi, Y.; Zhang, H. Evaluation of the Ability of Spectral Indices of Hydrocarbons and Seawater for Identifying Oil Slicks Utilizing Hyperspectral Images. Remote Sens. 2018, 10, 421. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10030421
Zhao D, Cheng X, Zhang H, Niu Y, Qi Y, Zhang H. Evaluation of the Ability of Spectral Indices of Hydrocarbons and Seawater for Identifying Oil Slicks Utilizing Hyperspectral Images. Remote Sensing. 2018; 10(3):421. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10030421
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhao, Dong, Xinwen Cheng, Hongping Zhang, Yanfei Niu, Yangyang Qi, and Haitao Zhang. 2018. "Evaluation of the Ability of Spectral Indices of Hydrocarbons and Seawater for Identifying Oil Slicks Utilizing Hyperspectral Images" Remote Sensing 10, no. 3: 421. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10030421