Impact of Astaxanthin on Diabetes Pathogenesis and Chronic Complications
<p>Schematic representation of molecular pathways implied in the protective potential of astaxanthin (ASX): Due to its membrane penetrance, ASX has both intra- and extracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging actions. Moreover, in the phospholipid membrane, the ASX polyene chain participates in the reduction of lipid peroxidation. Through the regulation of different pathways, ASX reduces inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. Red arrows indicate inhibitory action, and green arrows show enhancement action.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Beneficial effects of astaxanthin at different developmental stages of diabetes mellitus (DM) and its complications.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Schematic representation of different pathways suggested for the protective effect of astaxanthin on diabetic retinopathy (DR) via its ROS scavenging potential and reduced oxidative stress induced by the enhanced antioxidant and the downstream pathways activated in hyperglycemic states: In parallel, ASX inhibits inflammation through the nuclear factor-kappa (NF-κB) pathway, microvascular damages through vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) production, and finally apoptosis through the regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B PI3K/Akt pathways. The grey arrow indicates different pathways implied in the development of the pathology, the red arrow indicates the inhibitory/regulatory effect, while the green ones represent a stimulatory effect.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Schematic representation of different pathways suggested for the protective effect of astaxanthin (ASX) on diabetic nephropathy (DN): Through its ROS scavenging and antioxidant potential, ASX reduces oxidative stress and the downstream pathways activated in the development of the disease. In addition, ASX directly inhibits NF-κB translocation and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) production as well as reduces inflammation and fibrosis, which are strongly implied in DN. The grey arrow indicates different pathways implied in the DN development, the red arrow indicates an inhibitory/regulatory effect, while the green ones indicate a stimulatory effect.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Schematic representation of different pathways suggested for the protective effect of astaxanthin (ASX) on diabetic neuropathy: Through its ROS scavenging potential and the enhancement of antioxidant activities, ASX reduces oxidative stress and the downstream pathways activated in the development of DM-induced neuronal abnormalities. In addition, ASX directly inhibits inflammation through NF-κB, microvascular damages through VEGF production, and finally apoptosis through the regulation of MAPK and PI3K/Akt pathways. The grey arrow indicates different pathways implied in the development of DM-induced neuronal abnormalities, the red arrow indicates an inhibitory/regulatory effect, while the green ones indicate a stimulatory effect.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Schematic representation of different pathways suggested for the protective effect of astaxanthin (ASX) on diabetic cardiovascular complications in the literature: through its ROS scavenging potential and the enhancement of antioxidant activities, ASX reduces oxidative stress and the downstream pathways activated in the development of the pathology. In addition, ASX directly inhibits inflammation through NF-κB pathway. Thrombosis and vasoconstriction reduction are also associated with oxidative stress regulation. Moreover, ASX lowers oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL), enhances endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), and reduces vasoconstriction. The grey arrow indicates different pathways implied in the development of DM-induced neuronal abnormalities, the red arrow indicates an inhibitory/regulatory effect, while the green ones indicate a stimulatory effect.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Pathophysiology of Diabetes-Related Metabolic Disorders and Complications Focus on the Hyperglycemia–Oxidative Stress Interactions
3. Astaxanthin: Biological Effect on Diabetes Onset, Progression, and Chronic Complications
3.1. General Aspects of Astaxanthin: Structure, Sources, Bioactivity, and Administration Toxicity
3.1.1. Sources and Chemical Structure of Astaxanthin
3.1.2. Administration Doses and Toxicity Studies
3.1.3. Bioactivity of Astaxanthin
3.2. Antidiabetic Effects of Astaxanthin
3.3. Astaxanthin: Protective Effects on Diabetes Complications
3.3.1. Astaxanthin: Protection against Diabetic Retinopathy
3.3.2. Astaxanthin Protection against Diabetic Nephropathy
3.3.3. Astaxanthin Protection against Diabetes-Induced Neuropathy
3.3.4. Cardiovascular Protective Effect of Astaxanthin in Diabetes
3.3.5. Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Astaxanthin in Diabetes
4. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
References
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Landon, R.; Gueguen, V.; Petite, H.; Letourneur, D.; Pavon-Djavid, G.; Anagnostou, F. Impact of Astaxanthin on Diabetes Pathogenesis and Chronic Complications. Mar. Drugs 2020, 18, 357. https://doi.org/10.3390/md18070357
Landon R, Gueguen V, Petite H, Letourneur D, Pavon-Djavid G, Anagnostou F. Impact of Astaxanthin on Diabetes Pathogenesis and Chronic Complications. Marine Drugs. 2020; 18(7):357. https://doi.org/10.3390/md18070357
Chicago/Turabian StyleLandon, Rebecca, Virginie Gueguen, Hervé Petite, Didier Letourneur, Graciela Pavon-Djavid, and Fani Anagnostou. 2020. "Impact of Astaxanthin on Diabetes Pathogenesis and Chronic Complications" Marine Drugs 18, no. 7: 357. https://doi.org/10.3390/md18070357