Land-Based Carbon Effects and Human Well-Being Nexus
<p>The number of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) indicators related to carbon emissions, land use, and land cover change (LUCC) or human well-being (HW) (developed from [<a href="#B4-land-13-01419" class="html-bibr">4</a>]).</p> "> Figure 2
<p>An example of an observation and evaluation method system of a terrestrial ecosystem carbon sink (developed from Pu et al. [<a href="#B30-land-13-01419" class="html-bibr">30</a>]).</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Carbon effects of mutual transformation among various land use types.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Relationship between carbon effects and HW.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>The framework of the LUCC-C-HW system. CCUS: carbon capture, utilization, and storage. LUCC: land use and land cover change. HW: human well-being.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Carbon Effects
2.1. Carbon Sink Effect
2.2. Carbon Source Effect
3. Carbon Effects and LUCC
3.1. Methods for Exploring LUCC Carbon Effects
3.1.1. Land Use Simulation Method
3.1.2. Carbon Sink Calculation and Simulation Methods
The Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-Offs (InVEST) Model
The Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach (CASA) Model
GLObal Production Efficiency (GLO-PEM) Model
Carbon Exchange between Vegetation, Soil, and Atmosphere (CEVSA) Model
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Greenhouse Gas Inventory Method
The Bookkeeping Model
The Dynamic Land Ecosystem (DLEM) Model
3.2. Carbon Effects Change of Different Land Use Types Transformation
3.2.1. Forest Land Transformation Carbon Effects
3.2.2. Water Transformation Carbon Effects
Conversion | Area | Carbon Effects | References |
---|---|---|---|
Waters-related LUCC | The Yellow River Delta | Water is an important carbon sink | [77] |
Waters to construction land | The Yangtze River | A climb in carbon emissions | [78] |
Waters-related LUCC | The Mekong River Basin | Conversion of water is not the main cause of carbon release | [10] |
Waters-related LUCC | Six North Africa coastal wetlands | Conversion of wetlands to others mainly decreases carbon sinks | [81] |
Loss of wetlands | 487 sites | C concentration and storage decrease | [82] |
Loss of glaciers | Global | Loss of glaciers causes carbon release | [83] |
3.2.3. Grassland Transformation Carbon Effects
3.2.4. Cultivated Land Transformation Carbon Effects
Conversion | Area | Carbon Effects | References |
---|---|---|---|
Cultivated land-related LUCC | The Huang-Huai-Hai plain | Conversion of cultivated land to construction land led to a decrease in carbon sinks | [87] |
From cultivated land to forest land | The Tibet Autonomous Region | Carbon sinks rose | [7] |
From cultivated land to forest land | The Loess hilly region | The vegetation carbon sink increased year by year, while the soil carbon sink decreased first and then increased | [88] |
From cultivated land to forest land | The Loess hilly region | The soil carbon sink was significantly affected by slope aspects and years of returning cultivated land | [90] |
3.2.5. Unused Land Transformation Carbon Effects
3.2.6. Construction Land Transformation Carbon Effects
3.3. Carbon Effects of Different Land Use Types Transformation
3.4. Carbon Effects of Management Modes
4. Carbon Effects and Human Well-Being
4.1. Existing Linkage between Carbon Effects and Human Well-Being
4.1.1. Human Development Index (HDI)
4.1.2. Carbon Intensity of Human Well-Being (CIWB)
4.1.3. Energy Intensity of Human Well-Being (EIWB)
4.1.4. Others
4.2. Low-Carbon Human Well-Being
5. The Framework of the LUCC-CEs-HW System
- (1)
- LUCC involves alterations in land use types, management practices, land use intensity, and land use patterns, which can impact the carbon sink and carbon source within a specific area. For instance, transitioning from forest to construction land can lead to the destruction of plant life in the forest, diminishing its capacity to absorb carbon dioxide. This shift results in increased carbon emissions due to construction activities and heightened human presence, leading to greater energy consumption and subsequent carbon emissions. Such changes in LUCC, including other variations in land use types, have diverse operational principles, but collectively influence carbon effects. Modifications in land use intensity, such as intensive farming practices requiring more inputs like fertilizers and generating more waste, can also elevate carbon emissions compared to low-intensity land use. Various land management techniques, like implementing fire prevention measures in forests or altering cultivation methods in agricultural lands, can impact their carbon sink capabilities. Although the carbon effects of alterations in land use patterns are not definitively understood, their distribution can influence carbon effects across the area.
- (2)
- The carbon effects in a given area are determined by the balance between carbon sinks and carbon sources. Factors influencing carbon effects correspond to indicators of low-carbon HW, with the latter being heavily reliant on carbon sink and carbon source elements. Changes in carbon source effects, such as construction activities, energy consumption, deforestation, and combustion, can lead to shifts in related indicators of carbon sources in low-carbon HW. The effects of biomass and soil carbon sinks are manifested in indicators like per capita land area of cultivated land, forest land, grassland, and water bodies in low-carbon HW assessments.
- (3)
- Human well-being stands as a fundamental development objective in society, prompting adjustments in land use policies based on well-being status and objectives. Low carbon is a crucial aspect of HW and represents a future development trend. In instances where low-carbon HW is lacking, considerations are made regarding the constraints of well-being when planning LUCC. For example, in regions with limited per-capita land area of types conducive to carbon sinks, leading to low-carbon HW, strategies may involve increasing the proportion of land types with high carbon sink capacities, such as forest land.
- (4)
- The well-being of individuals in a low-carbon society is influenced by LUCC. Factors such as the amount of cultivated land, grassland, water bodies, and forest land per person are integral to low-carbon HW. Any increase in construction land area, degradation of forest and grassland, and decline in carbon sinks would harm low-carbon HW. Higher land use intensity leads to increased energy consumption and higher carbon emission intensity, consequently diminishing low-carbon HW. Implementing an optimized land use management model and pattern, including improved farming and grazing practices as well as energy consumption structure, can enhance low-carbon HW.
- (5)
- The establishment of a low-carbon HW index is a fundamental objective of human society and is crucial for the sustainability of human civilization. To enhance low-carbon HW, society must develop policies that regulate carbon impacts, such as optimizing energy consumption structures, restricting the use of non-clean energy, and controlling carbon emissions from activities like farming, grazing, and construction.
6. Discussions and Implications
6.1. LUCC and Carbon Effects
6.2. Carbon Effects and Human Well-Being
6.3. LUCC and Human Well-Being
6.4. “LUCC-CEs-HW” System
7. Conclusions
- (1)
- Land Use and Land Cover Change Carbon Effects:
- (2)
- Human Well-being Carbon Effects:
- (3)
- Low-carbon Human Well-being:
- (4)
- The LUCC-CEs-HW Framework:
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Methods | Author | Results | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|---|
PLUS model | [52] | Future land use pattern | It simplifies the analysis of land use change while maintaining a higher degree of precision in support of multiple types and complexities of land use change. | Land use demand is needed to run a simulation. |
InVEST model | [31,38,49] | Carbon sink | Simple, convenient, and has a visual expression of evaluation results | Parameters need to be adjusted according to the study area; lack of space–time scale; accuracy and precision need improvement |
CASA | [53] | Carbon sink | Mechanism model, suitable for large-scale research, widely used, fewer parameters | Non-North American areas need to adjust the parameters; the difference in vegetation is not considered; and there are high requirements for soil data. |
GLO-PEM | [54] | Carbon sink | Fully driven by a remote sensing model, convenient | Accuracy and precision need improvement. |
CEVSA | [55] | Carbon sink | Well applied at regional to global scales to model spatial–temporal variations in the carbon cycle of terrestrial ecosystems and their responses to climate change | Quantitative expression methods need to be adjusted for different scenarios. |
IPCC | [56] | Carbon footprint | Data are easy to obtain; the model is complete and widely used | General, lack of pertinence |
Bookkeeping | [57,58] | Carbon budget | Easy, convenient, data are easy to obtain | Uncertainties in the space dimension, limited by the accuracy of the data |
DLEM | [17] | Carbon sink | Driven by multiple factors, fully-coupled cycles, concurrent simulation of major greenhouse gases, dynamic tracking | It depends on the accuracy and richness of the data. |
Land Use/Cover Carbon Effects | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|
Forest Land | Biomass + | Product − | [59] |
Leftover + | [60] | ||
Soil + | [61] | ||
Waters | Biomass + | [62] | |
Construction − | [63] | ||
Grass Land | Biomass + | [64] | |
Soil + | [64] | ||
Cultivated Land | Biomass + | Product − | [65] |
Fertilization − | [66] | ||
Soil + | [67] | ||
Unused Land | Biomass + | [68] | |
Soil + | [68] | ||
Construction Land | Energy Consumption − | [69] |
Conversion | Area | Carbon Effects | References |
---|---|---|---|
From primary forests to cultivation | The foothills of the Eastern Himalayan Region of India (Manipur) | Total soil C stocks decrease | [75] |
Deforestation and reforestation | The Northeast China Forestry | Forest carbon sinks experience a trend of sharp decline to slow increase | [37] |
Forest expansion | China | Contributes to nearly 44% of the national terrestrial carbon sink | [17] |
Different intensities of human utilization | The Mayombe tropical forest | Carbon storage drops in both high- and moderate-utilization regimes | [44] |
LUCC | China | N deposition causes net primary production and net ecosystem production to rise | [76] |
Reforestation following harvesting; recent or historic disturbances | USA | C sequestration in forest biomass and soils is enhanced | [50] |
Functional traits of trees and forest standing biomass change | Global | Soil organic carbon storage depends on climatic and soil conditions | [61] |
Conversion | Area | Carbon Effects | References |
---|---|---|---|
Grassland-related LUCC | The Dongting Lake | Forestation causes SOC to decrease in the first five years. Conversion from grassland to cultivated land leads to SOC loss. | [84] |
Grassland-related LUCC | China | Conversion from grassland to cultivated land causes carbon release | [32] |
Grassland-related LUCC | Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau grassland | Restoration of grassland leads to more carbon storage | [85] |
Grassland-related LUCC | Global | The increase in livestock number contributes to the change in grassland from a carbon sink to a carbon source. | [86] |
Method | References | Site | Time Scale |
---|---|---|---|
Human Development Index (HDI) | [101] | Global | 1975–2005 |
Carbon Intensity of Well-being (CIWB) | [102] | 70 nations | 1995–2013 |
[103] | 125 countries | 1990–2017 | |
[69] | China | 1995–2016 | |
[104] | 153 nations | 1961–2013 | |
[105] | 9 lower-middle-income countries | 2000–2018 | |
[106] | 114 countries (or regions) | 1980–2014 | |
Energy Intensity of Human Well-being (EIWB) | [107] | 12 Central and Eastern European (CEE) nations | 1992–2010 |
[101] | 156 country samples | 1975–2005 | |
Happiness (questionnaire) | [108] | Australia | 2010 |
Carbon Effects | Indicators | Calculation Method | Units |
---|---|---|---|
Carbon source | Carbon emission intensity | CO2 emissions/GDP | Kg/$ |
Energy consumption per capita (excluding electricity) | Energy equivalent to total standard carbon consumption/population (excluding electricity) | Kg/capita | |
Per capita electricity consumption | Electricity consumption/population | kW·h/capita | |
Share of clean energy consumption | Renewable energy consumption/total energy consumption | % | |
Per capita livestock captive | Per capita livestock captive | Livestock/capita | |
Carbon sink | Per capita cultivated land area | Per capita cultivated land area | km2/capita |
Per capita forest land area | Per capita forest land area | km2/capita | |
Per capita grassland area | Per capita grassland area | km2/capita | |
Per capita water area | Per capita water area | km2/capita |
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Wang, K.; He, K.; Wang, X.-C.; Xie, L.; Dong, X.; Lei, F.; Gong, C.; Liu, M. Land-Based Carbon Effects and Human Well-Being Nexus. Land 2024, 13, 1419. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091419
Wang K, He K, Wang X-C, Xie L, Dong X, Lei F, Gong C, Liu M. Land-Based Carbon Effects and Human Well-Being Nexus. Land. 2024; 13(9):1419. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091419
Chicago/Turabian StyleWang, Kexin, Keren He, Xue-Chao Wang, Linglin Xie, Xiaobin Dong, Fan Lei, Changshuo Gong, and Mengxue Liu. 2024. "Land-Based Carbon Effects and Human Well-Being Nexus" Land 13, no. 9: 1419. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091419