Exploring the Impact of Solid-State Fermentation on Fava Bean Flour: A Comparative Study of Aspergillus oryzae and Rhizopus oligosporus
<p>Light transmission profiles of emulsions of fava bean flour (<b>A</b>), fava bean flour fermented with <span class="html-italic">Aspergillus oryzae</span> (<b>B</b>), and fava bean flour fermented with <span class="html-italic">Rhizopus oligosporus</span> (<b>C</b>) as a function of the position. The left side of each graph represents the top of the ingredient’s cuvette. Red and green lines indicate the initial and latest transmission profiles, respectively.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Protein profiles of the fava bean ingredients, with the reference ladder in the first position (L), followed by fava bean flour FB (A), fava bean flour fermented with <span class="html-italic">Aspergillus oryzae</span> (B), and fava bean flour fermented with <span class="html-italic">Rhizopus oligosporus</span> (C).</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Representative scanning electron micrographs of fava bean flour (<b>A</b>), fava bean flour fermented with <span class="html-italic">Aspergillus oryzae</span> (<b>B</b>), and fava bean flour fermented with <span class="html-italic">Rhizopus oligosporus</span> (<b>C</b>). The magnification shown is 1000×.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Changes in aromas’ intensity during fermentation relative to fava bean flour, based on the GC-FID peak area (ΔFBA = FBA-FB and ΔFBR = FBR-FB) for compounds with a significant difference (of at least 1 for one of the fermented ingredients).</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Changes in the organic acid concentrations of fava bean flour fermented with <span class="html-italic">Aspergillus oryzae</span> (FBA) or <span class="html-italic">Rhizopus oligosporus</span> (FBR) compared with fava bean flour (FB) (ΔFBA = FBA-FB and ΔFBR = FBR-FB) detected by MS-Omics and expressed as g/100 g on a dry matter basis.</p> "> Figure A1
<p>Particle size distribution for fava bean flour (FB), fava bean flour fermented by <span class="html-italic">Aspergillus oryzae</span> (FBA), and fava bean flour fermented by <span class="html-italic">Rhizopus oligosporus</span> (FBR). The results are expressed as the volume density (%) as a function of size (μm).</p> "> Figure A2
<p>Word clouds for FB (<b>A</b>), FBA (<b>B</b>), and FBR (<b>C</b>) generated from the aroma profiles detected by olfactometry. Larger font sizes reflect the predominance of aromas associated with the compounds.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Raw Materials and Starter Cultures
2.2. Solid-State Fermentation
2.3. Compositional Analysis
Carbohydrates
2.4. Protein Characteristics
2.4.1. Total Amino Acids and Free Amino Acids
2.4.2. Sulfhydryl (SH) Groups
2.4.3. Protein Solubility
2.4.4. SDS-PAGE
2.5. Techno-Functional Properties of the Ingredients
2.5.1. pH and Total Titratable Acidity (TTA)
2.5.2. Water- and Oil-Holding Capacity
2.5.3. Foaming Properties
2.5.4. Minimum Gelling Concentration
2.5.5. Emulsion Characteristics
2.5.6. Particle Size
2.5.7. Colour
2.6. Antinutrients
2.6.1. Phytic Acid
2.6.2. Total Saponin
2.6.3. Condensed Tannins
2.6.4. Trypsin Inhibitor Activity (TIA)
2.6.5. Chymotrypsin Inhibitor Activity (CIA)
2.7. Microscopy
2.8. Olfactometry
2.9. Fungal Metabolites
2.10. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Composition of Ingredients
3.2. FODMAP Analysis
3.3. Amino Acid Profile
3.4. Techno-Functional Properties
3.4.1. pH and TTA
3.4.2. Sulfhydryl (SH) Groups
3.4.3. Water- and Oil -Holding Capacity
3.4.4. Foaming Properties
3.4.5. Minimum Gelling Concentration
3.4.6. Protein Solubility
3.4.7. Emulsifying Characteristics
3.4.8. Particle Size
3.4.9. Colour
3.4.10. Protein Profile
3.5. Microscopy
3.6. Antinutrients
3.7. Olfactometry
3.8. Fungal Metabolites
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Total Fatty Acid Profile
Fatty Acid Profile | g/100 g DM | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
FB | FBA | FBR | ||
Lauric acid | 12:0 | 0.01 ± 0.00 | n.d. | n.d. |
Myristic acid | 14:0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.01 ± 0.00 | 0.01 ± 0.00 |
Pentadecanoic acid | 15:0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.01 ± 0.00 | 0.01 ± 0.00 |
Palmitic acid | 16:0 | 0.29 ± 0.05 | 0.36 ± 0.06 | 0.43 ± 0.06 |
Hexadecenoic acid | 16:1 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.02 ± 0.00 | 0.02 ± 0.00 |
Isoeptadecanoic acid | 17:0 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
14-Methyl hexadecanoic acid | 17:0 | n.d. | 0.00 ± 0.00 | n.d. |
Margaric acid | 17:0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.00 ± 0.00 |
Heptadecenoic acid | 17:1 | n.d. | n.d. | 0.02 ± 0.00 |
Stearic acid | 18:0 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.21 ± 0.05 |
Oleic acid | 18:1 | 0.53 ± 0.07 | 0.60 ± 0.08 | 0.79 ± 0.10 |
Linoleic acid | 18:2 | 0.89 ± 0.11 | 1.05 ± 0.13 | 0.96 ± 0.12 |
Conjugated linoleic acid | 18:2 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
Linolenic acid | 18:3 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 0.12 ± 0.02 |
Arachidic acid | 20:0 | 0.02 ± 0.00 | 0.01 ± 0.00 | 0.02 ± 0.00 |
Eicosenoic acid | 20:1 | 0.01 ± 0.00 | 0.01 ± 0.00 | 0.01 ± 0.00 |
Heneicosylic acid | 21:0 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
Behenic acid | 22:0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | n.d. | 0.01 ± 0.00 |
Docosanoic acid | 22:1 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. |
Lignoceric acid | 24:0 | n.d. | n.d. | 0.01 ± 0.00 |
Appendix B. Particle Size Distribution
Appendix C. Aroma Profile
Compound 1 | Odour Quality 2 | RI2 (FFAP) | Intensity 3,4 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
FB | FBA | FBR | |||
Methylpropanal | Malty | <900 | 0 | 0.75 | 0.5 |
2/3-Methylbutanal | Malty | 920 | 0 | 2.5 | 2.5 |
Methylbutanoate | Fruity | 973 | 0 | 0.5 | 0.75 |
2,3-Butanedione | Butter | 987 | 0 | 1.5 | 1.75 |
Unknown | Onion, garlic | 1019 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 |
Unknown | Gas | 1042 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 |
Ethyl-2-methylbutanoate | Fruity | 1050 | 0.5 | 1.25 | 1 |
Ethyl-3-methylbutanoate | Fruity | 1069 | 0.75 | 1.25 | 1.75 |
Hexanal | Grassy | 1088 | 1 | 1.5 | 1.75 |
3-Methyl-2-buten-1-thiol | Beer | 1108 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 1 |
2-Heptanone | Fruity | 1178 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 |
2-/3-Methyl-1-butanol | Malty | 1207 | 0 | 0.5 | 1.75 |
(Z)-4-heptenal | Fishy | 1241 | 0 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
3-Hydroxy-2-butanone | Butter | 1280 | 0 | 0.75 | 0.5 |
Octanal | Citrus | 1285 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 |
1-Octen-3-one | Mushroom | 1295 | 0.75 | 1.5 | 1.75 |
2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline | Roasty | 1329 | 0.5 | 2.25 | 2.25 |
1-Mercapto-2-propanone | Catty | 1363 | 0.75 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Dimethyltrisulfide | Cabbage | 1366 | 0 | 1.5 | 2 |
(E)/(Z)-1,5-octadien-3-one | Geranium | 1368 | 0 | 0 | 0.75 |
2,3,5-Trimethylpyrazine | Earthy | 1408 | 0 | 1 | 1.25 |
2-Isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine | Bell pepper | 1425 | 0.5 | 0 | 0 |
2-Furfurylthiol | Coffee | 1428 | 0.5 | 0 | 0 |
Acetic acid | Vinegar | 1433 | 1.25 | 3 | 3 |
Methional | Boiled potato | 1450 | 1.5 | 2.5 | 2.5 |
2-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine | Earthy | 1455 | 1 | 1.5 | 1 |
(Z)-2-nonenal | Fatty | 1495 | 0.5 | 0 | 1 |
2-Isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine | Bell pepper | 1518 | 0.5 | 0 | 0.5 |
(E)-2-nonenal | Cardboard | 1523 | 0.75 | 0.5 | 1 |
Linalool | Floral | 1544 | 1 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
2-Vinyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine | Earthy | 1551 | 0 | 0.5 | 1.5 |
2-Methylpropanoic acid | Cheese | 1554 | 0 | 3 | 3 |
1-Octanol | Citrus | 1559 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
2-Acetyl-1,4,5,6-tetrahydropyridine | Roasty | 1564 | 0.5 | 0 | 0 |
(E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal | Cucumber | 1574 | 1 | 0 | 0.5 |
(Z)-2-decenal | Fatty | 1603 | 0.5 | 0 | 0 |
Benzyl mercaptane | Cress | 1611 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.75 |
2-Acetylpyrazine | Roasty | 1618 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 |
Butanoic acid | Cheese | 1621 | 0.5 | 1.75 | 1.75 |
Phenylacetaldehyde | Honey | 1632 | 0.5 | 1.25 | 1.5 |
2-Methyl-3-(methyldithio)furan | Meaty | 1658 | 0 | 1 | 1.25 |
2-/3-Methylbutanoic acid | Cheese | 1663 | 3 | 3 | 2.75 |
(E,E)-2,4-nonadienal | Fatty | 1692 | 1.25 | 1.25 | 1 |
3-Methyl-2,4-nonandione | Floral | 1711 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0 |
Methionol | Boiled potato | 1717 | 0 | 0.5 | 0 |
Dimethyltetrasulfide | Cabbage | 1720 | 0 | 0 | 1.5 |
Unknown | Onion, gravy | 1726 | 0.5 | 0.75 | 0.75 |
Pentanoic acid | Cheese | 1731 | 0 | 0.75 | 0.5 |
(E)-2-undecenal | Metallic | 1740 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
2-Acetyl-2-thiazoline | Roasty | 1749 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Ethyl-2-phenylacetate | Honey, floral | 1757 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0 |
Unknown | Mouldy, musty | 1769 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
3-Methylpentanoic acid | Cheese | 1771 | 0 | 0.5 | 1 |
2,4,6-Trichloroanisole | Mouldy | 1794 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
2-Phenylethylacetate | Honey | 1797 | 0 | 0.5 | 0 |
(E,E)-2,4-decadienal | Fatty | 1803 | 0.75 | 1.25 | 1.5 |
(E)-β-damascenone, (E)-β-damascone | Apple | 1809 | 0 | 0.5 | 1 |
Geosmin | Earthy | 1812 | 0.5 | 0 | 1 |
2-Propionyl-2-thiazoline | Roasty | 1821 | 0.5 | 0 | 0 |
Calamenene | Clove | 1826 | 0 | 0.5 | 0 |
3-Mercapto-1-hexanol | Rhubarb | 1832 | 1.5 | 1.25 | 1.25 |
Hexanoic acid | Goat | 1835 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.5 |
Geraniol | Rose | 1844 | 1 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
2-Hydroxy-3,4-dimethyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one | Caramel | 1850 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
2-Methoxyphenol | Smoky | 1853 | 1 | 1.5 | 2 |
(E,E,Z)-2,4,6-nonatrienal | Oatflakes | 1868 | 1.5 | 0.5 | 1.25 |
2-Phenylethanol | Honey | 1900 | 1 | 0 | 2 |
2-Ethyl-3-mercapto-1-hexanol | Meaty | 1952 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 |
Trans-2,3-epoxydodecanal | Citrus, soapy | 1958 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Maltol | Caramel | 1961 | 0.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 |
Trans-4,5-epoxy-(E)-2-decenal | Metallic | 1997 | 2 | 1.5 | 1 |
4-Ethyl-2-methoxyphenol | Smoky | 2016 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 |
p-anisaldehyde | Aniseed | 2019 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 |
γ-Nonalactone | Peach | 2023 | 1 | 1 | 0.5 |
Furaneol | Caramel | 2026 | 2 | 2.25 | 1.75 |
Octanoic acid | Goat | 2039 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 |
γ-(Z)-2-nonenolactone | Coconut | 2065 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 |
3-/4-Methylphenol | Phenolic | 2074 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
2,6-Dichlorophenol | Phenolic, medical | 2100 | 0 | 0 | 0.75 |
γ-Decalactone | Peach | 2133 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Unknown | Perfume | 2137 | 1 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Eugenol | Clove | 2157 | 1.25 | 1 | 1 |
3-/4-Ethylphenol | Phenolic | 2173 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol | Clove | 2187 | 0.75 | 1 | 1 |
Sotolon | Seasoning | 2197 | 1.75 | 2.25 | 2.25 |
2-Aminoacetophenone | Foxy | 2210 | 1 | 1.5 | 1.75 |
Decanoic acid | Soapy | 2247 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 |
3-/4-Propylphenol | Phenolic | 2257 | 0 | 0.5 | 0 |
Isoeugenol | Ham | 2337 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
γ-Dodecalactone | Peach | 2378 | 0 | 1.5 | 1.25 |
Coumarine | Woodruff | 2448 | 0.5 | 0 | 0.5 |
3-Methylindole | Fecal | 2485 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0 |
Phenylacetic acid | Honey | 2546 | 1.75 | 2.25 | 2 |
Vanillin | Vanilla | 2562 | 1.5 | 2 | 1.5 |
Phenylpropanoic acid | Goat | >2600 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.5 |
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g/100 g | |||
FB | FBA | FBR | |
Moisture | 12.06 ± 0.09 | 8.37 ± 0.13 | 7.54 ± 0.03 |
g/100 g DM | |||
Protein | 24.58 ± 0.18 | 29.56 ± 0.06 | 26.57 ± 0.18 |
Total Nitrogen | 4.95 ± 0.22 | 5.78 ± 0.20 | 5.87 ± 0.19 |
Total fats | 2.27 ± 0.14 | 2.65 ± 0.31 | 3.18 ± 0.37 |
Fatty acid profile | |||
Palmitic acid | 0.29 ± 0.05 | 0.36 ± 0.06 | 0.43 ± 0.06 |
Stearic acid | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.21 ± 0.05 |
Oleic acid | 0.53 ± 0.07 | 0.60 ± 0.08 | 0.79 ± 0.10 |
Linoleic acid | 0.89 ± 0.11 | 1.05 ± 0.13 | 0.96 ± 0.12 |
Linolenic acid | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 0.12 ± 0.02 |
Carbohydrates | |||
Mono-/disaccharides | 2.21 ± 0.08 a | 1.67 ± 0.27 b | 3.67 ± 0.15 c |
Glucose | n.d. a | 0.93 ± 0.16 b | 1.07 ± 0.03 b |
Fructose | n.d. a | n.d. a | 0.13 ± 0.01 b |
Sucrose | 2.21 ± 0.08 a | n.d. b | 1.67 ± 0.03 c |
Maltose | n.d. a | 0.71 ± 0.11 b | 0.75 ± 0.07 b |
Galactose | n.d. a | 0.03 ± 0.00 b | 0.06 ± 0.00 c |
Oligosaccharides | 3.74 ± 0.24 a | 0.21 ± 0.01 b | 1.64 ± 0.05 c |
Raffinose/stachyose | 0.96 ± 0.05 a | 0.05 ± 0.00 b | 0.98 ± 0.04 a |
Verbascose | 2.78 ± 0.19 a | 0.13 ± 0.00 b | 0.64 ± 0.01 c |
Kestose | n.d. a | 0.01 ± 0.00 b | 0.01 ± 0.00 c |
Nystose | n.d. a | 0.03 ± 0.00 b | 0.01 ± 0.00 c |
Starch | |||
Digestible starch | 25.69 ± 0.55 a | 34.62 ± 1.69 b | 28.43 ± 2.12 a,b |
Resistant starch | 24.31 ± 0.46 a | 9.43 ± 0.96 b | 6.39 ± 0.37 c |
Total starch | 50.00 ± 0.87 a | 44.04 ± 2.28 b | 34.83 ± 2.15 c |
Dietary fibre | |||
Soluble low molecular weight (SDFS) | 1.17 ± 0.06 a | 2.45 ± 0.06 b | 3.16 ± 0.13 c |
Soluble high molecular weight (SDFP) | 0.92 ± 0.35 a | 2.18 ± 0.29 b | 2.46 ± 0.28 b |
Insoluble (IDF) | 25.79 ± 0.68 a | 15.93 ± 0.22 b | 16.45 ± 1.17 b |
Total dietary fibre (TDF) | 27.88 ± 0.59 a | 20.59 ± 0.44 b | 22.07 ± 0.34 b |
Ash | 3.57 ± 0.22 | 3.90 ± 0.26 | 3.92 ± 0.26 |
Kjeldahl Conversion Factor | |
---|---|
Fava bean flour (FB) | 4.97 |
Fava bean flour fermented with Aspergillus oryzae (FBA) | 5.11 |
Fava bean flour fermented with Rhizopus oligosporus (FBR) | 4.52 |
FODMAP | g/100 g DM | ||
---|---|---|---|
FB | FBA | FBR | |
Excess fructose (EF) * | - | - | - |
Glucose | n.d. a | 0.93 ± 0.16 b | 1.07 ± 0.03 b |
Fructose | n.d. a | n.d.a | 0.13 ± 0.01 b |
∑Polyols | 0.01 ± 0.00 a | 1.83 ± 0.21 b | 0.01 ± 0.00 a |
Arabitol | n.d. a | 1.23 ± 0.14 b | n.d. a |
Sorbitol | 0.01 ± 0.00 a | n.d.b | 0.01 ± 0.00 c |
Mannitol | n.d. a | 0.60 ± 0.07 b | n.d. a |
∑Oligosaccharides | 3.74 ± 0.24 a | 0.22 ± 0.01 b | 1.64 ± 0.05 c |
Raffinose/stachyose | 0.96 ± 0.05 a | 0.05 ± 0.00 b | 0.98 ± 0.04 a |
Verbascose | 2.78 ± 0.19 a | 0.13 ± 0.00 b | 0.64 ± 0.01 c |
Kestose | n.d. a | 0.01 ± 0.00 b | 0.01 ± 0.00 c |
Nystose | n.d. a | 0.03 ± 0.00 b | 0.01 ± 0.00 c |
Total fructans | - | - | - |
∑FODMAPs | 3.75 ± 0.24 a | 2.04 ± 0.22 b | 1.65 ± 0.05 b |
FB | FBA | FBR | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Level (g/100 g protein) * | % Requirement ** | Level (g/100 g protein) | % Requirement | Level (g/100 g protein) | % Requirement | |
Essential AA | ||||||
Histidine | 2.98 ± 0.42 | 198.92 | 3.52 ± 0.15 | 234.65 | 5.05 ± 0.42 | 336.81 |
Isoleucine | 5.26 ± 0.74 | 175.48 | 5.23 ± 0.18 | 174.35 | 5.05 ± 0.66 | 168.29 |
Leucine | 9.74 ± 1.36 | 165.05 | 9.40 ± 0.36 | 159.40 | 8.93 ± 1.16 | 151.34 |
Lysine | 8.07 ± 1.12 | 179.39 | 8.72 ± 0.33 | 193.80 | 8.31 ± 1.13 | 184.72 |
Methionine | 0.63 ± 0.08 | 1.22 ± 0.05 | 1.56 ± 0.01 | |||
Cysteine | 1.20 ± 0.14 | 1.68 ± 0.09 | 2.04 ± 0.03 | |||
Methionine + cysteine | 1.83 ± 0.22 | 83.27 | 2.90 ± 0.13 | 131.78 | 3.61 ± 0.04 | 163.89 |
Phenylalanine | 5.18 ± 0.72 | 5.48 ± 0.23 | 5.50 ± 0.71 | |||
Tyrosine *** | 3.25 ± 0.45 | 3.39 ± 0.19 | 3.73 ± 0.50 | |||
Phenylalanine + tyrosine | 8.42 ± 1.18 | 221.68 | 8.87 ± 0.42 | 233.29 | 9.23 ± 1.22 | 242.92 |
Threonine | 5.00 ± 0.70 | 217.42 | 4.99 ± 0.20 | 217.07 | 4.89 ± 0.62 | 212.42 |
Tryptophan | 0.60 ± 0.06 | 100.23 | 0.93 ± 0.02 | 154.59 | 0.95 ± 0.05 | 158.76 |
Valine | 4.56 ± 0.64 | 116.96 | 6.01 ± 0.22 | 154.22 | 6.06 ± 0.81 | 155.33 |
Nonessential AA | ||||||
Alanine | 5.09 ± 0.71 | 5.65 ± 0.20 | 7.49 ± 0.97 | |||
Arginine | 11.50 ± 1.60 | 9.03 ± 0.41 | 7.89 ± 1.09 | |||
Aspartic acid + asparagine | 14.21 ±1.98 | 13.55 ± 0.49 | 13.17 ± 1.71 | |||
Glutamic acid + glutamine | 21.67 ± 3.02 | 20.59 ± 0.76 | 19.51 ± 2.44 | |||
Proline | 4.56 ± 0.64 | 5.05 ± 0.19 | 5.07 ± 0.61 | |||
Serine | 6.84 ± 0.95 | 6.51 ± 0.26 | 5.97 ± 0.78 | |||
Glycine | 5.53 ± 0.77 | 5.23 0.18 | 5.12 ± 0.65 |
g/100 g Ingredient DM | |||
---|---|---|---|
Free AA | FB | FBA | FBR |
Alanine | 0.044 ± 0.002 | 0.180 ± 0.002 | 0.186 ± 0.008 |
Asparagine | 0.041 ± 0.017 | 0.026 ± 0.002 | 0.028 ± 0.002 |
Aspartic acid | 0.126 ± 0.078 | 0.188 ± 0.003 | 0.066 ± 0.004 |
Cysteine | 0.000 ± 0.001 | 0.011 ± 0.001 | 0.006 ± 0.000 |
Glutamic acid | 0.239 ± 0.108 | 0.335 ± 0.020 | 0.206 ± 0.011 |
Glutamine | 0.002 ± 0.002 | 0.024 ± 0.002 | 0.026 ± 0.001 |
Glycine | 0.002 ± 0.001 | 0.008 ± 0.000 | 0.007 ± 0.000 |
Histidine | 0.004 ± 0.001 | 0.103 ± 0.009 | 0.090 ± 0.003 |
Isoleucine | 0.011 ± 0.007 | 0.135 ± 0.002 | 0.095 ± 0.007 |
Leucine | 0.009 ± 0.006 | 0.148 ± 0.003 | 0.093 ± 0.006 |
Lysine | 0.033 ± 0.016 | 0.229 ± 0.023 | 0.133 ± 0.005 |
Methionine | 0.001 ± 0.001 | 0.021 ± 0.001 | 0.003 ± 0.000 |
Ornithine | 0.003 ± 0.002 | 0.018 ± 0.001 | 0.032 ± 0.001 |
Phenylalanine | 0.046 ± 0.028 | 0.151 ± 0.003 | 0.113 ± 0.006 |
Proline | 0.003 ± 0.002 | 0.018 ± 0.000 | 0.012 ± 0.001 |
Serine | 0.007 ± 0.003 | 0.097 ± 0.005 | 0.053 ± 0.003 |
Threonine | 0.006 ± 0.004 | 0.089 ± 0.003 | 0.055 ± 0.004 |
Tryptophan | 0.010 ± 0.007 | 0.043 ± 0.002 | 0.022 ± 0.001 |
Tyrosine | 0.015 ± 0.009 | 0.099 ± 0.004 | 0.059 ± 0.003 |
Valine | 0.014 ± 0.009 | 0.106 ± 0.001 | 0.079 ± 0.006 |
FB | FBA | FBR | |
---|---|---|---|
pH | 6.65 ± 0.01 a | 6.26 ± 0.03 b | 6.22 ± 0.01 b |
TTA (mL 0.1 M NaOH/10g ingredient) | 10.98 ± 0.03 a | 24.37 ± 0.51 b | 26.60 ± 0.36 c |
SH groups (μmol SH/g protein) | |||
Exposed | 4.78 ± 0.30 a | 3.67 ± 0.33 b | 0.68 ± 0.03 c |
Free | 5.97 ± 0.25 a | 5.55 ± 0.91 a | 6.10 ± 0.17 a |
Total | 101.13 ± 8.43 a | 108.17 ± 9.09 a | 70.61 ± 4.70 b |
Water-holding capacity (%) | 64.77 ± 0.17 a | 77.05 ± 1.33 b | 75.64 ± 0.71 c |
Oil-holding capacity (%) | 78.42 ± 0.54 a,b | 75.64 ± 0.71 a | 79.42 ± 0.74 b |
Foaming capacity (%) | 19.73 ± 3.12 a | 11.27 ± 1.30 b | 9.81 ± 2.56 b |
Foam stability (%) | 93.64 ± 5.53 a | 100.00 ± 0.00 a | 13.89 ± 2.41 b |
Minimum gelling concentration (%) | 24.00 ± 0.00 a | 18.00 ± 0.00 b | 17.00 ± 0.00 c |
Protein solubility (%) | |||
Native pH | 100.13 ± 2.06 a | 50.68 ± 1.77 b | 25.55 ± 0.99 c |
pH 7 | 92.63 ± 4.59 a | 85.06 ± 1.55 b | 32.48 ± 0.50 c |
Separation rate (%/s) | 0.016 ± 0.002 a | 0.028 ± 0.001 b | 0.030 ± 0.002 b |
Particle size distribution (μm) | |||
D [4,3] | 67.67 ± 0.81 a | 516.00 ± 10.54 b | 439.33 ± 2.08 c |
Dv (10) | 12.23 ± 0.06 a | 32.63 ± 1.70 b | 37.03 ± 0.61 b |
Dv (50) | 36.90 ± 0.26 a | 414.00 ± 31.43 b | 335.33 ± 16.17 b |
Dv (90) | 174.00 ± 2.65 a | 1196.67 ± 20.82 b | 1020.00 ± 10.00 c |
Colour | |||
L* value | 90.92 ± 0.50 a | 74.82 ± 0.15 b | 66.72 ± 0.67 c |
a* value | −1.44 ± 0.02 a | 4.32 ± 0.07 b | 4.29 ± 0.07 b |
b* value | 16.59 ± 0.47 a | 21.50 ± 0.00 b | 19.98 ± 0.33 c |
Differential colour index ΔE | - | 17.80 ± 0.59 | 25.11 ± 0.23 |
FB | FBA | FBR | |
---|---|---|---|
Phytic acid (g/100 g) | 0.397 ± 0.001 | 0.329 ± 0.001 | 0.214 ± 0.002 |
Saponins (GAE mg/g) | 0.31 ± 0.09 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.25 ± 0.03 |
Trypsin inhibitors (TIU/mg) | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.82 ± 0.04 | 4.22 ± 0.14 |
Chymotrypsin inhibitors (CIU/mg) | 36.00 ± 0.28 | 25.70 ± 0.42 | 12.20 ± 0.28 |
Condensed tannins (catechin equivalent mg/g) | 1.56 ± 0.98 | 0.02 ± 0.02 | 0.00 ± 0.00 |
Ingredient | Ergosterol (mg/100 g) |
---|---|
Fava bean flour (FB) | 0.0 ± 0.0 |
Fava bean flour + Aspergillus oryzae (FBA) | 195.1 ± 2.8 |
Fava bean flour + Rhizopus oligosporus (FBR) | 187.6 ± 0.6 |
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Gautheron, O.; Nyhan, L.; Torreiro, M.G.; Tlais, A.Z.A.; Cappello, C.; Gobbetti, M.; Hammer, A.K.; Zannini, E.; Arendt, E.K.; Sahin, A.W. Exploring the Impact of Solid-State Fermentation on Fava Bean Flour: A Comparative Study of Aspergillus oryzae and Rhizopus oligosporus. Foods 2024, 13, 2922. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13182922
Gautheron O, Nyhan L, Torreiro MG, Tlais AZA, Cappello C, Gobbetti M, Hammer AK, Zannini E, Arendt EK, Sahin AW. Exploring the Impact of Solid-State Fermentation on Fava Bean Flour: A Comparative Study of Aspergillus oryzae and Rhizopus oligosporus. Foods. 2024; 13(18):2922. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13182922
Chicago/Turabian StyleGautheron, Ophélie, Laura Nyhan, Maria Garcia Torreiro, Ali Zein Alabiden Tlais, Claudia Cappello, Marco Gobbetti, Andreas Klaus Hammer, Emanuele Zannini, Elke K. Arendt, and Aylin W. Sahin. 2024. "Exploring the Impact of Solid-State Fermentation on Fava Bean Flour: A Comparative Study of Aspergillus oryzae and Rhizopus oligosporus" Foods 13, no. 18: 2922. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13182922