Marginal Value of Vehicle-to-Grid Ancillary Service in a Power System with Variable Renewable Energy Penetration and Grid Side Flexibility
<p>Average daily power demand in each indicated area.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Generation capacity and peak demand in each area under high-, medium-, and low-VRE penetration scenarios. Abbreviations: LNG, liquefied natural gas; PSHP, pumped storage hydroelectricity plant; VRE, variable renewable energy.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Hourly existence ratio of EVs in each area: (<b>a</b>) weekdays at the workplace, (<b>b</b>) weekdays at home, (<b>c</b>) holidays at the workplace, and (<b>d</b>) holidays at home.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Total electricity demands for EV charging in all areas.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Annual power generation cost and marginal value of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) load-frequency control (LFC) capacity for each VRE penetration scenario: (<b>a</b>) low, (<b>b</b>) middle, and (<b>c</b>) high.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Average daily energy balance of the national grid under different VRE penetration scenarios without V2G: (<b>a</b>) low, (<b>b</b>) middle, and (<b>c</b>) high.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Average daily LFC capacity balance for the national grid under different VRE penetration scenarios without V2G: (<b>a</b>) low, (<b>b</b>) middle, and (<b>c</b>) high.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Average daily power generation change by daytime V2G (the available V2G LFC capacity is 2016 MW) under different VRE penetration scenarios: (<b>a</b>) low, (<b>b</b>) middle, and (<b>c</b>) high.</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Average daily change of ensured LFC capacity by daytime V2G (the available V2G LFC capacity is 2016 MW) under different VRE penetration scenarios: (<b>a</b>) low, (<b>b</b>) middle, and (<b>c</b>) high.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Average daily power generation changes by overnight V2G (available V2G LFC capacity: 2016 MW) under different VRE penetration scenarios: (<b>a</b>) low, (<b>b</b>) middle, and (<b>c</b>) high.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>Average daily changes of ensured LFC capacity by overnight V2G (available V2G LFC capacity: 2016 MW) under different VRE penetration scenarios: (<b>a</b>) low, (<b>b</b>) middle, and (<b>c</b>) high.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>Annual power system operation in each area and interconnection under the middle-VRE scenario without V2G: (<b>a</b>) power generation and (<b>b</b>) LFC capacity.</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Annual changes of power system operation for each area and interconnection with daytime V2G under the middle-VRE scenario (the available V2G LFC capacity is 2016 MW), in terms of (<b>a</b>) power generation and (<b>b</b>) LFC capacity.</p> "> Figure 14
<p>Annual changes in power system operations for each area and interconnection by overnight V2G under the middle-VRE scenario (the available V2G LFC capacity is 2016 MW), in terms of (<b>a</b>) power generation and (<b>b</b>) LFC capacity.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Production-Cost Model Incorporating V2G on LFC Timescale
- (1)
- Supply and demand balance: generation and load are balanced considering the power flow of the interconnection lines, at time t, in grid id;
- (2)
- Upper and lower limits of the generator output: the power output of generator i is in the range of upper and lower limits with ensured LFC capacity;
- (3)
- Restriction of the upper and lower limits of the VRE: VRE curtailment is no more than the output;
- (4)
- Interconnection power-flow limits: the power flow of an interconnection line considers the upper and lower limits of the current flow with a margin for the LFC capacity;
- (5)
- Capacity constraints on the PSHPs: the amount of water storage in PSHP is determined by the amount of energy input and output from the previous time, and it must be within the upper and lower storage limits;
- (6)
- Upper and lower limit constraints for the input and output of the PSHPs: the binary variables and , which indicate the operating state, are considered for the upper and lower limits;
- (7)
- Simultaneous constraints on pumping and power generation in the PSHPs: and are binary variables to inhibit simultaneous pumping and generating operation with each unit;
- (8)
- Pumped storage balance constraints: the amount of water storage must be the same at the beginning and end of the day;
- (9)
- Must-run unit constraints;
- (10)
- Maintenance constraints: the generator unit i in maintenance period cannot be operated;
- (11)
- LFC capability restrictions: LFC supply capacity considering generators, interconnection lines operation, and V2G is equal to the LFC demand capacity or more;
- (12)
- Upper and lower limits of the available LFC capacity: LFC supply capacity is less than or equal to the margin capacity of a unit in operation;
- (13)
- Interconnected LFC capacity limits: LFC capacity wheeled on an interconnection line is equal to or less than the margin capacity of the interconnection line, and sum of sending and receiving of the whole system must be balanced;
- (14)
- Available V2G LFC capacity limits: the upper limit of available V2G LFC capacity is proportional to the margin capacity of bidirectional chargers and the number of parked EVs;
- (15)
- EV battery balance: the SOC of the EV battery is determined by the amount of charge and consumption from the SOC of the previous time;
- (16)
- EV charging constraint: EV charging amount is proportional to the number of parked EVs and the rated capacity of the charger excluding the margin capacity for LFC;
- (17)
- EV SOC constraints: the SOC of the EV battery must be within the upper and lower limits, and the same at the beginning and end of the day.
2.2. Defining Marginal Value of V2G LFC
3. Case Study
3.1. Japanese Power System
3.2. EVs
3.3. Simulations
- ●
- VRE penetration scenario:
- (1)
- Low: PV, 64.3 GW; WT, 10.7 GW;
- (2)
- Middle: PV, 103.4 GW; WT, 32.2 GW;
- (3)
- High: PV, 155.1 GW; WT, 50.3 GW.
- ●
- V2G scenario:
- (1)
- DT: available at the workplace from 9:00 to 17:00 on weekdays;
- (2)
- NT: available at home from 23:00 to 5:00 on weekdays and holidays.
4. Results
4.1. Saturation Analysis
4.2. Power System Operation
4.2.1. Power System Operation without V2G
4.2.2. Power System Operation Changes by V2G LFC
4.3. Local Power Systems and Interconnection Operations
5. Discussion
- (1)
- Marginal value of V2G LFC
- (2)
- Cooperation with energy storage system
6. Conclusions
- The marginal value of the V2G LFC capacity increased with higher VRE penetration. Comparing the low- and high-VRE scenarios showed that the maximum marginal value increased by approximately 3.2-fold during the daytime (from USD 125 to USD 400/kW/year) and by approximately 2.1-fold overnight (from USD 85 to USD 175/kW/year). The reasonable EV fleet size for the power system increased from approximately 292,000 to 1,483,000 vehicles during the day and from 0 to approximately 542,000 vehicles overnight. The maximum cost saving (USD 705.6/EV/year) occurred during the daytime under the high-VRE scenario. Note that this value might be underestimated because it does not reflect the investment and maintenance costs of generators.
- Daytime V2G LFC not only increased daytime VRE generation, but it also reduced thermal power generation by causing changes in the PSHP operations before and after V2G. Under higher VRE penetration scenarios, the VRE that avoided curtailment during the day due to V2G was temporarily stored in the PSHPs, and the discharging of PSHPs in the evening further reduced LNG and coal generation with higher fuel costs. Overnight V2G LFC resulted in cost savings by substituting coal for LNG. Under higher VRE scenarios, VRE that avoided curtailment overnight was stored in PSHPs, and PSHP discharge reduced the evening thermal-generation peak. Improving the value of V2G LFC required coordination with storage and excess VRE generation.
- The transactions of LFC capacity through the interconnected lines decreased because the daytime V2G LFC increased the power system flexibility in each area. Conversely, energy transactions increased from areas with abundant VRE and low demand to areas with high demand. Overnight V2G reduced both the LFC capacity and energy transmission, while mitigating transmission losses.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
Index | |
Time slot | |
Generator unit | |
Grid | |
Interconnection line | |
Index of must-run generator units | |
Index of must-stop generator units | |
Index of generator units under maintenance | |
Parameters | |
Coefficients | |
Number of grids | |
Number of interconnection lines | |
EV battery efficiency | |
Variables | |
(0, offline; 1, online) | |
(0, offline; 1, online) | |
(0, offline; 1, online) | |
LFC capacity to raise at time t | |
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From | To | Capacity (MW) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sent | Received | ||||
Energy | LFC | Energy | LFC | ||
Hokkaido | Tohoku | 810 | 90 | 810 | 90 |
Tohoku | Tokyo | 9252 | 1028 | 2124 | 236 |
Tokyo | Chubu | 2700 | 300 | 2700 | 300 |
Chubu | Hokuriku | 270 | 30 | 270 | 30 |
Chubu | Kansai | 1053 | 117 | 2250 | 250 |
Hokuriku | Kansai | 1629 | 181 | 1170 | 130 |
Kansai | Chugoku | 2502 | 278 | 3735 | 415 |
Kansai | Shikoku | 1260 | 140 | 1260 | 140 |
Chugoku | Shikoku | 1080 | 120 | 1080 | 120 |
Chugoku | Kyusyu | 189 | 21 | 2502 | 278 |
Scenario | VRE | Hokkaido | Tohoku | Tokyo | Chubu | Hokuriku | Kansai | Chugoku | Shikoku | Kyusyu | Okinawa | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | PV | 2.5 | 7.5 | 17.0 | 8.6 | 1.1 | 8.7 | 4.8 | 2.4 | 11.2 | 0.5 | 64.3 |
WT | 1.1 | 3.3 | 1.6 | 1.1 | 0.2 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 0.1 | 10.7 | |
Middle | PV | 4.5 | 13.5 | 27.4 | 12.9 | 1.8 | 14.2 | 7.5 | 3.6 | 17.3 | 0.6 | 103.4 |
WT | 2.7 | 10.9 | 5.9 | 3.7 | 0.8 | 2.1 | 2.1 | 1.1 | 2.4 | 0.4 | 32.2 | |
High | PV | 6.8 | 20.3 | 41.1 | 19.3 | 2.7 | 21.3 | 11.3 | 5.4 | 26.0 | 0.9 | 155.1 |
WT | 4.3 | 17.1 | 9.3 | 5.8 | 1.2 | 3.2 | 3.2 | 1.8 | 3.8 | 0.6 | 50.3 |
Operation Mode | Oil | Coal | LNG | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Output (MW) | Fuel Cost (USD/MWh) | Output (MW) | Fuel Cost (USD/MWh) | Output (MW) | Fuel Cost (USD/MWh) | |
Minimum power | 105 | 210.2 | 150 | 37.3 | 160 | 87.2 |
Rated power | 350 | 175.4 | 500 | 31.1 | 400 | 66.9 |
Hokkaido | Tohoku | Tokyo | Chubu | Hokuriku | Kansai | Chugoku | Shikoku | Kyusyu | Okinawa | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stock | 0.41 | 0.99 | 2.60 | 1.37 | 0.29 | 1.19 | 0.62 | 0.32 | 1.05 | 0.12 | 8.96 |
VRE Scenario | Low | Middle | High | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
V2G Scenario | DT | NT | DT | NT | DT | NT |
Maximum size of V2G LFC capacity (MW) | 875 | 0 | 2,780 | 600 | 4450 | 1625 |
Fleet size (million EVs) | 0.292 | 0 | 0.927 | 0.200 | 1.483 | 0.542 |
Power generation cost saving (USD/EV/year) | 316.8 | 0 | 519.6 | 328.5 | 705.6 | 393.2 |
V2G | VRE | Annual Cost Reduction (Million USD/Year) | Reduction Cost Per Unit (USD/MWh) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coal | LNG | Coal | LNG | ||
DT | Low | −36.1 | 175.7 | 12.9 | 72.5 |
Middle | 49.9 | 312.6 | 43.6 | 72.5 | |
High | 182.7 | 433.7 | 35.5 | 70.7 | |
NT | Low | −24.6 | 71.8 | 12.8 | 87.3 |
Middle | −26.3 | 129.0 | 2.3 | 78.2 | |
High | 46.2 | 165.1 | 28.7 | 74.9 |
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Kataoka, R.; Ogimoto, K.; Iwafune, Y. Marginal Value of Vehicle-to-Grid Ancillary Service in a Power System with Variable Renewable Energy Penetration and Grid Side Flexibility. Energies 2021, 14, 7577. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227577
Kataoka R, Ogimoto K, Iwafune Y. Marginal Value of Vehicle-to-Grid Ancillary Service in a Power System with Variable Renewable Energy Penetration and Grid Side Flexibility. Energies. 2021; 14(22):7577. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227577
Chicago/Turabian StyleKataoka, Ryosuke, Kazuhiko Ogimoto, and Yumiko Iwafune. 2021. "Marginal Value of Vehicle-to-Grid Ancillary Service in a Power System with Variable Renewable Energy Penetration and Grid Side Flexibility" Energies 14, no. 22: 7577. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227577