Evolution of Countermeasures against Atmospheric Icing of Power Lines over the Past Four Decades and Their Applications into Field Operations
<p>Example of icing impact on a high voltage transmission line (1998 Eastern Canada ice storm, credit: Photo Hydro-Québec).</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Example of icing impact on a medium voltage distribution line (1998 Eastern Canada ice storm, credit: private archive).</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Chronology of the analysed review papers in relation to the two catastrophic icing events.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Two Examples of Extreme Ice Storm Events
- In the first week of January 1998, up to 110 mm of ice accumulated in some parts of eastern Canada (southern Quebec including the city of Montreal, some eastern parts of Ontario). About 1500 high voltage line towers and 17,000 distribution poles had to be replaced. Approximately, 3 million people had lost electricity at the peak of the ice storm, and it took one month to reconnect the last customers [17]. Figure 1 and Figure 2 illustrate the damage on the transmission and distribution networks during this event.
- At the end of January 2008, heavy wet snow and freezing ice precipitations were experienced for several days in parts of southern and central China. Over 100 of the 500 kV power lines and about 340 of the 220 kV power lines were interrupted [4]. Several millions of people were affected, and it took two to three weeks in some areas to completely restore the electrical power supply.
1.2. Anti-Icing and De-Icing
1.3. Consequences of Ice and Snow Accumulations on Power Lines
2. Comparison Approach
- To provide a concise overview of various proposed countermeasures;
- To analyze the evolution of countermeasures in the past decades;
- To examine if a catastrophic event (such as the big ice storm in Eastern Canada in January 1998) had an impact on the development of countermeasures.
- Reference [1] published in 1982 is considered by several authors as the first known review focusing on anti-icing and de-icing methods for overhead power lines.
- Reference [2] summarizes a technical report that was prepared for Hydro-Québec before the 1998 ice storm in eastern Canada.
- References [6] is a detailed technical report that was published in 2002, about four years after the 1998 ice storm in eastern Canada.
- Reference [9] was written by an international expert committee in the framework of a CIGRE working group in 2010. It can be seen as a milestone for the documentation of the anti-icing and de-icing methods reporting in detail the knowledge at the moment of publication.
- Reference [10] is a master thesis published in 2018 on the topic of this study, thus some years after the preceding analyzed documents.
- Reference [11] is a recent publication that provides technical content to the power industry. It offers a comprehensive overview of the present knowledge of various anti-icing and de-icing technologies. Besides the countermeasures for power lines, it also covers the possible impacts and countermeasures for insulators.
- References [12,13,14] present the methods that were selected by Hydro-Québec for further analyses after the Eastern Canada ice storm in 1998. The references include a ranking of the selected methods according to various criteria, including cost, complexity, implementation delay and reliability. This evaluation was carried out in order to help Hydro-Québec deciding which methods should be implemented into the field operations.
- Reference [5] includes a concise overview of various methods and it reports details of the method that was selected for future applications in parts of the Italian power grid.
- Reference [15] includes a selection of methods that are considered applicable for the specific situation in Norway. It presents a ranking for some selected methods addressing recommendations for future applications in the Norwegian power grid.
3. Comparison of the Various Countermeasures Proposed over the Last Four Decades against Power Line Icing
3.1. Classification of Various Countermeasures
3.1.1. Line Design Considerations
3.1.2. Passive Devices
3.1.3. Passive Coatings
3.1.4. Active Coatings
3.1.5. Mechanical Methods
3.1.6. Thermal Methods
3.1.7. Miscellaneous Methods
3.2. Comparative Analysis over the Last Four Decades
4. Selection of Countermeasures for the Integration into Field Operations or for Further Investigations
4.1. Technology Integration within Hydro-Québec after the 1998 Eastern Canada Ice Storm
- The highest score was obtained for the thermal method by load shifting (method 6.1.1). However, this method can only be applied to a certain number of power lines with voltage levels varying from 49 kV to 315 kV, but it is not suitable for the 735 kV network of Hydro-Québec [14].
- The second score was obtained for the thermal method by DC current injection (method 6.2.3). The decision was made to install a large DC source at a centrally located substation that could inject DC current into the high voltage power lines and ground wires. A technology was chosen that could also be used as a static var compensator (SVC) throughout the year, which would help making the project economically viable. However, the implementation of this de-icer project was a complex task and it is still ongoing at the present time. The analysis of annual reports published by Hydro-Québec allowed tracing a timeline for the various steps:
- −
- Approval for the project was obtained in August 2004 [21].
- −
- The engineering for the de-icer project was completed in 2005 [22].
- −
- In 2008, the commissioning of the de-icer project was completed [23].
- −
- However, the de-icer could not be used until today. One of the main reasons for this blockage is the risk of ice pieces falling onto highways and damaging cars during the de-icing period. Therefore, Hydro-Québec started installing the LC-spirals (method 4.2) on the power lines above highways in 2017 [24]. These installations are relatively difficult to schedule as the highways have to be closed temporarily. The installation efforts are scheduled through 2023 in order to cover all critical highway crossings.
- In 2012, Hydro-Québec reported that the robot LINEROV for mechanical de-icing of power lines (method 5.1.6) was used with success on several occasions [26].
- Reconstructed lines were built with improved mechanical strength in order to withstand higher ice loads (method 1.4.1).
- Anti-cascading towers were included in critical line sections in order to limit damage that could result from the collapse of towers (method 1.4.2).
- On the distribution network, poles and their anchoring were strengthened. In the case of a catastrophic event, only the crossarm and conductors could fall (method 2.5). This makes reconstruction easier and faster.
- Some additional new line sections were constructed in order to create additional meshed loops in the power network that provide increased redundancy for the power supply.
- The vegetation control program has been enhanced to prevent falling iced trees from causing power outages in the distribution network.
- The type of towers selected can withstand higher ice loads (method 1.4.1).
- The line does not have a ground wire, but surge arresters with external spark gap were installed (method 1.5).
- The type of conductor selected had superior mechanical strength (method 1.6).
4.2. Recent Applicability Studies in Italy
4.3. Recent Applicability Studies in Norway
- For ground wires, the use of remotely controlled external current sources that are permanently installed on critical line sections (method 6.2.2).
- For phase conductors, two methods are identified—current redistribution by contactors load transfer in bundled lines (method 6.5) and use of high frequency injection with generators installed on critical line sections (method 6.4).
- For fjord crossings, LC spirals seem to be an interesting option (method 4.2).
4.4. Recommendations after the Winter Storm of January 2008 in China
5. Conclusions
6. Future Outlook
- With climate changes, power grids are poised to experience unpredicted icing and snowing events that may not be limited only to the so-called “cold regions”.
- With increasing age, most installed transmission lines are more fragile.
- The ever-growing demand for electricity is another major concern that adds to the problem.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Countermeasure | [1]---1982 | [2]---1996 | [6]---2002 | [7,8] 2005/---2008 | [9]---2010 | [10]---2018 | [11]---2020 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Line Design | 1998 Ice Storm in Eastern Canada 1998 Ice Storm in Eastern Canada | 2008 Ice Storm in Eastern/Southern China 2008 Ice Storm in Eastern/Southern China | ||||||||
1.1 Improved line routing | X | X | ||||||||
1.2 Underground cables | X | X | ||||||||
1.3 Measures to avoid interphase-short-circuits | 1.3.1 Using separate structures for each phase | X | ||||||||
1.3.2 Modifying crossarms (longer middle crossarms) | X | |||||||||
1.3.3 Modify circuit spacing | X | |||||||||
1.3.4 Rearranging phase configuration | X | |||||||||
1.4 Mechanical reinforcement | 1.4.1 Stronger towers | X | X | X | ||||||
1.4.2 Anti-cascading towers | X | X | ||||||||
1.5 No ground wire (but addition of special surge arrestors) | X | X | ||||||||
1.6 Choice of conductor or bundle | 1.6.1 Compact design (trapezoidal or z-shaped strands) | X | X | X | X | |||||
1.6.2 Optimised simple conductor | ||||||||||
1.6.3 Increased number in bundle | X | X | ||||||||
2. Passive Devices | ||||||||||
2.1 Counterweights (anti-rotation device) | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||
2.2 Snow rings, wires and Teflon tapes | X | X | X | X | ||||||
2.3 Interphase spacers | X | X | X | |||||||
2.4 Spacer dampers | X | X | ||||||||
2.5 Load reducing devices, mechanical fuses, fasteners | X | X | X | |||||||
2.6 Aeolian shedding | X | X | ||||||||
3. Passive Coatings | ||||||||||
3.1 Industrial viscous liquids | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||
3.2 Heterogeneous polymer coatings | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
3.3 Freezing point depressant fluids | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
3.4 Icephobic coatings | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||
3.5 Hydrophobic and superhydrophobic coatings | X | X | X | X | ||||||
3.6 Black coatings / Heat absorbent coatings | X | X | X | |||||||
3.7 Chemically reactive coating | X | |||||||||
4. Active Coatings | ||||||||||
4.1 Addition of ferroelectric material (high frequency injection) | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
4.2 LC spiral rods (ferromagnetic spirals) | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||
4.3 Heated tracers | X | X | X | X | ||||||
4.4 Ice electrolysis | X | X | X | |||||||
4.5 Piezoelectric polymers (PVDF) | X | X | X | |||||||
4.6 Shape memory alloys | X | X | ||||||||
5. Mechanical Methods | ||||||||||
5.1 Line Maintenance | 5.1.1 Roller wheels or scraping | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||
5.1.2 Manual shock wave | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
5.1.3 Tensioning and releasing | X | X | ||||||||
5.1.4 De-icer Actuated by Cartridge (DAC) | X | X | X | X | ||||||
5.1.5 Helicopter (wooden pole or rope with knots) | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
5.1.6 Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) (Scraping) | X | X | X | |||||||
5.2 Pneumatic Hammer | X | X | X | X | ||||||
5.3 Eletro-impulse method (EIDI) | X | X | X | X | ||||||
5.4 Ice-shedder device (induced vibrations) | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||
5.5 Twisting device | X | X | ||||||||
5.6 High-magnitude short circuit method (for bundled conductors) | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
6. Thermal Methods | ||||||||||
6.1 Increase of line current using the network | 6.1.1 Load shifting (Load transfer) method | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||
6.1.2 On-load De-Icer method (ONDI) (phase shifting) | X | X | X | X | ||||||
6.1.3 Reactive Current De-icing | X | |||||||||
6.2 External current source | 6.2.1 Reduced (medium) voltage short-circuit method | X | X | X | X | X | X | |||
6.2.2 Ground wire de-icing method (med.volt.short circ.) | X | X | X | |||||||
6.2.3 DC current method for AC-lines | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
6.3 DC-Line De-icing | X | |||||||||
6.4 High frequency electric field method | X | X | X | X | ||||||
6.5 Contactor load transfer method (bundle shifting / current re-distribution) | X | X | X | X | X | |||||
6.6 Pulse electrothermal de-icer method | X | X | X | X | ||||||
6.7 Various external heat sources | 6.7.1 Infrared waves | X | ||||||||
6.7.2 Radio waves radiation ext. heat source | X | X | X | X | ||||||
6.7.3 Steam generating device | X | X | X | X | ||||||
6.7.4 Ultrasonic De-icing | X | X | ||||||||
6.7.5 Hot Gas | X | |||||||||
6.7.6 Hot Water/Anti-icing fluids | X | |||||||||
7. Miscellaneous Methods | ||||||||||
7.1 Drop freezing before impact | X | X | ||||||||
7.2 Drop heating before impact | X | X | ||||||||
7.3 Corona discharges | X | X | ||||||||
7.4 Electro-congelation | X | |||||||||
7.5 Development of ice-resistant conductors | ||||||||||
7.6 Laser De-Icing | X | |||||||||
7.7 Pneumatic air boots | X | X | X | |||||||
7.8 Asymmetric operation of 3-phase power lines |
Countermeasure | [12,13,14]--- Canada--- 2004 | [5]--- Italy--- 2019 | [15]--- Norway--- 2019 | [4,16,29,30]--- China--- 2010–2015 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Line Design | |||||
1.1 Improved line routing | |||||
1.2 Underground cables | |||||
1.3 Measures to avoid interphase-short-circuits | 1.3.1 Using separate structures for each phase | ||||
1.3.2 Modifying crossarms (longer middle crossarms) | |||||
1.3.3 Modify circuit spacing | |||||
1.3.4 Rearranging phase configuration | |||||
1.4 Mechanical reinforcement | 1.4.1 Stronger towers | 7 | |||
1.4.2 Anti-cascading towers | |||||
1.5 No ground wire (but addition of special surge arrestors) | X | ||||
1.6 Choice of conductor or bundle | 1.6.1 Compact design (trapezoidal or z-shaped strands) | 5 | X | ||
1.6.2 Optimised simple conductor | 4 | X | |||
1.6.3 Increased number in bundle | X | ||||
2. Passive Devices | |||||
2.1 Counterweights (anti-rotation device) | X | X | |||
2.2 Snow rings, wires and Teflon tapes | X | X | |||
2.3 Interphase spacers | X | ||||
2.4 Spacer dampers | |||||
2.5 Load reducing devices, mechanical fuses, fasteners | 10 | ||||
2.6 Aeolian shedding | |||||
3. Passive Coatings | |||||
3.1 Industrial viscous liquids | |||||
3.2 Heterogeneous polymer coatings | |||||
3.3 Freezing point depressant fluids | |||||
3.4 Icephobic coatings | 8 | X | X | ||
3.5 Hydrophobic and superhydrophobic coatings | |||||
3.6 Black coatings / Heat absorbent solid coatings | |||||
3.7 Chemically reactive coating | |||||
4. Active Coatings | |||||
4.1 Addition of ferroelectric material (high frequency injection) | X | ||||
4.2 LC spiral rods (ferromagnetic spirals) | X | X | |||
4.3 Heated tracers | |||||
4.4 Ice electrolysis | |||||
4.5 Piezoelectric polymers (PVDF) | |||||
4.6 Shape memory alloys | |||||
5. Mechanical Methods | |||||
5.1 Line Maintenance | 5.1.1 Roller wheels or scraping | X | |||
5.1.2 Manual shock wave | X | ||||
5.1.3 Tensioning and releasing | |||||
5.1.4 De-icer Actuated by Cartridge (DAC) | |||||
5.1.5 Helicopter (wooden pole or rope with knots) | X | ||||
5.1.6 Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) | X | X | |||
5.2 Pneumatic Hammer | |||||
5.3 Electro-impulse method (EIDI) | X | ||||
5.4 Ice-shedder device (induced vibrations) | X | ||||
5.5 Twisting device | X | ||||
5.6 High-magnitude short circuit method (for bundled conductors) | 6 | ||||
6. Thermal Methods | |||||
6.1 Increase of line current using the network | 6.1.1 Load shifting (Load transfer) method | 1 | X | X | X |
6.1.2 On-load De-Icer method (ONDI) (phase shifting) | X | ||||
6.1.3 Reactive Current De-icing | X | X | |||
6.2 External current source | 6.2.1 Reduced (medium) voltage short-circuit method | 3 | X | X | X |
6.2.2 Ground wire de-icing method (MV short circuit) | X | ||||
6.2.3 DC current method for AC-lines | 2 | X | X | ||
6.3 DC-Line De-icing | X | ||||
6.4 High frequency electric field method | X | X | |||
6.5 Contactor load transfer (bundle shifting / current re-distribution) | 11 | X | X | ||
6.6 Pulse electrothermal de-icer method | X | ||||
6.7 Various external heat sources | 6.7.1 Infrared waves | X | |||
6.7.2 Radio waves radiation ext. heat source | |||||
6.7.3 Steam generating device | |||||
6.7.4 Ultrasonic De-icing | |||||
6.7.5 Hot Gas | |||||
6.7.6 Hot Water/Anti-icing fluids | |||||
7. Miscellaneous Methods | |||||
7.1 Drop freezing before impact | |||||
7.2 Drop heating before impact | |||||
7.3 Corona discharges | |||||
7.4 Electro-congelation | |||||
7.6 Development of ice-resistant conductors | 9 | ||||
7.7 Laser De-Icing | X | ||||
7.8 Pneumatic air boots | |||||
7.9 Asymmetric operation of 3-phase power lines |
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Brettschneider, S.; Fofana, I. Evolution of Countermeasures against Atmospheric Icing of Power Lines over the Past Four Decades and Their Applications into Field Operations. Energies 2021, 14, 6291. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196291
Brettschneider S, Fofana I. Evolution of Countermeasures against Atmospheric Icing of Power Lines over the Past Four Decades and Their Applications into Field Operations. Energies. 2021; 14(19):6291. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196291
Chicago/Turabian StyleBrettschneider, Stephan, and Issouf Fofana. 2021. "Evolution of Countermeasures against Atmospheric Icing of Power Lines over the Past Four Decades and Their Applications into Field Operations" Energies 14, no. 19: 6291. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196291