How Cool Are Allotment Gardens? A Case Study of Nocturnal Air Temperature Differences in Berlin, Germany
<p>Example of a plot (<b>a</b>) within an allotment garden complex (AGC6) (<b>b</b>) in Berlin (52.483948 N/13.329340 E). Source: Photo of plot (<b>a</b>) taken by authors; aerial view (<b>b</b>): ©2020 GeoBasis-DE/BKG, GeoContent, Maxar Technologies.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Map of Berlin displaying the positions of allotment garden complexes (AGCs) and measurement stations as well as floor space index (FSI). The gray line indicates the administrative border of Berlin.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Weather conditions during the measurement campaign (daily values): minimum (T<sub>min</sub>), mean (T<sub>mean</sub>) and maximum (T<sub>max</sub>) air temperature as lines on the left <span class="html-italic">y</span>-axis; cloud cover (mean), precipitation (sum), sunshine (sum) as bars on the right <span class="html-italic">y</span>-axis; wind speed (mean) as numbers (top). Selected nights with calm and clear weather conditions highlighted in gray, located at the day following the respective night (Source: German Weather Service DWD CDC [<a href="#B60-atmosphere-11-00500" class="html-bibr">60</a>]: Berlin–Tegel: cloud cover; Berlin–Tempelhof: all other variables).</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Mean air temperature differences to urban areas (URB) per night (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>N</mi> <mo> </mo> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>) for all nights (boxplots, <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 66) and six nights with calm and clear weather conditions (blue diamonds) between URB and all allotment garden complexes (AGCs), rural areas (RUR) and both parks. Additionally, mean differences to URB (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mover accent="true"> <mrow> <mi>Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>N</mi> <mo> </mo> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo stretchy="true">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </semantics></math>) during all nights are shown as black squares and as blue squares with a black outline for nights with calm and clear weather conditions. AGCs are sorted by <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mover accent="true"> <mrow> <mi>Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>N</mi> <mo> </mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>G</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo stretchy="true">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </semantics></math> of all nights. Boxes range from 1st to 3rd quartile (inter quartile range–IQR), median is denoted as black line, whiskers range up to minimum/maximum value (maximum 1.5 *IQR), values below/above that range are denoted as black points.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Correlations between <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mover accent="true"> <mrow> <mi>Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>N</mi> <mo> </mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>G</mi> <mi>C</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo stretchy="true">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </semantics></math> and the land surface characteristic ‘FSI outside’ for (<b>a</b>) nights with calm and clear weather conditions and (<b>b</b>) all nights of the measurement period. <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>r</mi> <mi>s</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>: Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient; FSI outside: floor space index in a 500-m buffer around each allotment garden complex (AGC).</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Correlations between <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mover accent="true"> <mrow> <mi>Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow> <mi>N</mi> <mo> </mo> <mi>A</mi> <mi>G</mi> <mi>C</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo stretchy="true">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </semantics></math> and land surface characteristics for nights with calm and clear weather conditions in Berlin: (<b>a</b>) shape complexity; (<b>b</b>) size; (<b>c</b>) distance to city center; (<b>d</b>) sealing inside. <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>r</mi> <mi>s</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>: Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient; shape complexity: ratio between perimeter and size; sealing inside: degree of sealed land surfaces (including buildings) within each allotment garden complex (AGC).</p> "> Figure A1
<p>Distributions of the selected land surface characteristics of all allotment garden complexes (AGCs) in Berlin and sampled AGCs (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 13): (<b>a</b>) size; (<b>b</b>) perimeter; (<b>c</b>) shape complexity; (<b>d</b>) sealing inside; (<b>e</b>) sealing outside; (<b>f</b>) FSI inside; (<b>g</b>) FSI outside; (<b>h</b>) distance to the city center. Shape complexity: ratio between perimeter and size, FSI: floor space index, inside and outside: land surface characteristic of the AGCs themselves and in a 500-m buffer around each AGC, respectively.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- How does the mean nocturnal of AGs differ from densely built-up areas (URB), urban parks and rural areas (RUR) in the study area?
- How and to what extent, do mean differences between URB and AGs correlate with micro-scale land surface characteristics of AGs?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Selection of Measurement Sites and Land Surface Characteristics of AGs and Surroundings
2.3. Measurement Campaign
2.4. Data Preparation
2.5. Data Processing
3. Results
3.1. Nocturnal Air Temperature Differences
3.2. Correlation between Land Surface Characteristics and Nocturnal Air Temperature Differences
4. Discussion
4.1. Nocturnal Air Temperature Differences between AGCs and URB
4.2. Nocturnal Air Temperature Differences between AGCs, Urban Parks and RUR
4.3. Land Surface Characteristics
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Appendix B
ID | RUR | Park1 | Park2 | URB | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Station | Kaniswall, KANI | Dahlemer Feld, DAHF | Tiergarten | Tempelhofer Feld | Alexanderplatz, ALEX | Bamberger Straße, BAMB | Dessauer Straße, DESS |
Operator | DWD | TUB | TUB | DWD | DWD | TUB | TUB |
Latitude/Longitude | 52.4040 N/13.7309 E | 52.4777 N/13.2252 E | 52.5145 N/13.3636 E | 52.4675 N/13.4021 E | 52.5198 N/13.4054 E | 52.4964 N/13.3375 E | 52.5045 N/13.3783 E |
Site elevation (m) | 33.0 | 51.0 | 34.0 | 48.0 | 36.0 | 36.0 | 33.5 |
Size (km2) | – | – | 2.1 | 3.0 | – | – | – |
Perimeter (km) | – | – | 22.63 | 7.34 | – | – | – |
Shape complexity (km−1) | – | – | 0.09 | 0.41 | – | – | – |
Distance to city center (km) | 25.0 | 13.1 | 3.0 | 4.9 | 0.0 | 5.5 | 2.6 |
FSI inside/outside (-) | –/0.00 | –/0.74 | 0.06/0.36 | 0.12/0.36 | –/0.74 | –/2.37 | –/1.69 |
Sealing in-/outside (%) | –/1.50 | –/0.0 | 6.18/42.46 | 24.66/35.33 | –/73.43 | –/70.07 | –/61.48 |
LCZ | B | A | D | 2 | |||
SVF (-) | 0.9 | 0.46 | 0.16 | 0.96 | 0.54 | 0.24 | 0.42 |
(selected) (°C) | 15.5 | 18.0 | 18.1 | 19.7 | |||
(all) (°C) | 12.8 | 15.9 | 15.7 | 17.4 | |||
(selected) (K) | −4.3 | −1.7 | −1.6 | – | |||
(all) (K) | −4.6 | −1.8 | −1.6 | – | |||
max/min(selected) (K) | −1.5/−8.3 | −0.6/−3.3 | −0.7/−3.2 | – | |||
max/min(all) (K) | −0.2/−9.1 | −0.5/−4.1 | 0.1/−4.2 | – |
ID | AGC1 | AGC2 | AGC3 | AGC4 | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Logger ID | 1a | 1b | 1c | 2a | 2b | 3a | 3b | 4a | 4b | 4c | |||||||||
Latitude/Longitude | 52.56519 N/13.404214 E | 52.557609 N/13.404278 E | 52.556801 N/13.404211 E | 52.544499 N/13.357116 E | 52.544136 N/13.357093 E | 52.526632 N/13.260129 E | 52.523865 N/13.325949 E | 52.499702 N/13.483952 E | 52.499840 N/13.483896 E | 52.499641 N/13.483865 E | |||||||||
Shape | | | | | |||||||||||||||
Scale | 1:35,000 | 1:8500 | 1:10,000 | 1:8500 | |||||||||||||||
Site elevation (m) | 46.5 | 36.5 | 33.5 | 34.5 | |||||||||||||||
Size (km2) | 0.15 | 0.006 | 0.003 | 0.007 | |||||||||||||||
Perimeter (km) | 2.55 | 0.44 | 0.3 | 0.4 | |||||||||||||||
Shape complexity (km−1) | 17.1 | 71.8 | 103.2 | 56.7 | |||||||||||||||
Distance to city center (km) | 4.1 | 4.3 | 5.5 | 5.7 | |||||||||||||||
FSI in-/outside (-) | 0.01/0.87 | 0.78/1.80 | 0.00/1.89 | 0.00/0.38 | |||||||||||||||
Sealing in-/outside (%) | 29.82/49.61 | 49.11/61.84 | 11.73/71.13 | 32.12/46.88 | |||||||||||||||
SVF (-) | 0.93 | 0.8 | 0.71 | 0.91 | 0.77 | 0.79 | 0.74 | 0.93 | 0.92 | 0.86 | |||||||||
(selected) (°C) | 17.0 | 18.2 | 18.1 | 16.6 | |||||||||||||||
(all) (°C) | 14.5 | 15.8 | 15.7 | 14.3 | |||||||||||||||
(selected) (K) | −1.7 | −1.5 | −1.6 | −3.1 | |||||||||||||||
(all) (K) | −2.9 | −1.6 | −1.7 | −3.1 | |||||||||||||||
max/min(selected) (K) | −1.2/−5.8 | −0.1/−3.9 | −0.3/−3.5 | −1.0/−5.6 | |||||||||||||||
max/min(all) (K) | −0.7/−6.4 | −0.1/−4.1 | −0.3/−4.3 | 0.0/−6.5 | |||||||||||||||
ID | AGC5 | AGC6 | AGC7 | AGC8 | |||||||||||||||
Logger ID | 5a | 5b | 6a | 6b | 6c | 7a | 7b | 8a | 8b | ||||||||||
Latitude/Longitude | 52.476465 N/13.453303 E | 52.476300 N/13.454340 E | 52.522476 N/13.272697 E | 52.483948 N/13.329340 E | 52.484454 N/13.328883 E | 52.506701 N/13.506705 E | 52.506472 N/13.507516 E | 52.565796 N/13.331121 E | 52.566356 N/13.332066 E | ||||||||||
Shape | | | | | |||||||||||||||
Scale | 1:10,000 | 1:10,000 | 1:10,000 | 1:10,000 | |||||||||||||||
Site elevation (m) | 33.5 | 36.5 | 38 | 57.75 | |||||||||||||||
Size (km2) | 0.02 | 0.006 | 0.011 | 0.01 | |||||||||||||||
Perimeter (km) | 0.71 | 0.33 | 0.44 | 0.4 | |||||||||||||||
Shape complexity (km−1) | 30.8 | 51.5 | 39.4 | 42.3 | |||||||||||||||
Distance to city center (km) | 5.8 | 6.6 | 7.0 | 7.2 | |||||||||||||||
FSI in-/outside (-) | 0.46/0.96 | 2.00/1.93 | 0.56/0.92 | 0.27/0.60 | |||||||||||||||
Sealing in-/outside (%) | 36.73/57.56 | 56.08/60.55 | 49.12/50.8 | 27.34/42.23 | |||||||||||||||
SVF (-) | 0.76 | 0.9 | 0.51 | 0.81 | 0.8 | 0.85 | 0.59 | 0.82 | 0.89 | ||||||||||
(selected) (°C) | 17.4 | 17.4 | 16.9 | 16.2 | |||||||||||||||
(all) (°C) | 14.6 | 14.9 | 14.7 | 14.4 | |||||||||||||||
(selected) (K) | −2.3 | −2.4 | −2.8 | −2.5 | |||||||||||||||
(all) (K) | −2.8 | −2.5 | −2.7 | −3.1 | |||||||||||||||
max/min(selected) (K) | −1.0/−5.3 | −0.8/−4.7 | −0.7/−5.3 | −1.2/−5.0 | |||||||||||||||
max/min(all) (K) | −0.5/−6.2 | −0.5/−5.6 | 0.0/−5.7 | −0.6/−5.8 | |||||||||||||||
ID | AGC9 | AGC10 | AGC11 | ||||||||||||||||
Logger ID | 9a | 9b | 9c | 10a | 10b | 10c | 11a | 11b | 11c | ||||||||||
Latitude/Longitude | 52.487628 N/13.307651 E | 52.487071 N/13.306620 E | 52.486057 N/13.305941 E | 52.474764 N/13.311752 E | 52.473863 N/13.312507 E | 52.474095 N/13.313315 E | 52.456609 N/13.474660 E | 52,456151 N/13.474205 E | 52,456078 N/13.464090 E | ||||||||||
Shape | | | | ||||||||||||||||
Scale | 1:20,000 | 1:20,000 | 1:40,000 | ||||||||||||||||
Site elevation (m) | 44.5 | 41.2 | 33.83 | ||||||||||||||||
Size (km2) | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.42 | ||||||||||||||||
Perimeter (km) | 0.96 | 1.98 | 8.33 | ||||||||||||||||
Shape complexity (km−1) | 26.9 | 31.0 | 19.8 | ||||||||||||||||
Distance to city center (km) | 7.8 | 8.2 | 8.3 | ||||||||||||||||
FSI in-/outside (-) | 0.00/0.96 | 0.26/1.16 | 0.02/0.31 | ||||||||||||||||
Sealing in-/outside (%) | 21.25/56.76 | 17.61/50.67 | 22.38/32.73 | ||||||||||||||||
SVF (-) | 0.86 | 0.75 | 0.94 | 0.92 | 0.92 | 0.72 | 0.92 | 0.96 | 0.82 | ||||||||||
(selected) (°C) | 17.5 | 16.8 | 16.1 | ||||||||||||||||
(all) (°C) | 15.0 | 14.3 | 13.4 | ||||||||||||||||
(selected) (K) | −2.2 | −2.9 | −3.6 | ||||||||||||||||
(all) (K) | −2.4 | −3.1 | −4.0 | ||||||||||||||||
max/min(selected) (K) | −0.9/−5.0 | −1.3/- 5.5 | −1.1/−7.0 | ||||||||||||||||
max/min(all) (K) | −0.5/−5.6 | −0.4/−6.5 | −0.4/−8.0 | ||||||||||||||||
ID | AGC12 | AGC13 | |||||||||||||||||
Logger ID | 12a | 12b | 12c | 12d | 12e | 13a | 13b | ||||||||||||
Latitude/Longitude | 52,523609 N/13.325962 E | 52.526377 N/13.267863 E | 52.522101 N/13.271471 E | 52.483956 N/13.328949 E | 52.522335 N/13.269297 E | 52.529149 N/13.578040 E | 52.530704 N/13.580143 E | ||||||||||||
Shape | | | |||||||||||||||||
Scale | 1:40,000 | 1:40,000 | |||||||||||||||||
Site elevation (m) | 52.2 | 50 | |||||||||||||||||
Size (km2) | 0.69 | 0.14 | |||||||||||||||||
Perimeter (km) | 13.91 | 2.27 | |||||||||||||||||
Shape complexity (km−1) | 20.2 | 16.6 | |||||||||||||||||
Distance to city center (km) | 9.8 | 11.7 | |||||||||||||||||
FSI in-/outside (-) | 0.03/0.44 | 0.00/0.21 | |||||||||||||||||
Sealing in-/outside (%) | 29.37/37.19 | 15.63/19.45 | |||||||||||||||||
SVF (-) | 0.93 | 0.91 | 0.9 | 0.79 | 0.85 | 0.95 | 0.72 | ||||||||||||
(selected) (°C) | 16.9 | 16.0 | |||||||||||||||||
(all) (°C) | 14.9 | 13.6 | |||||||||||||||||
(selected) (K) | −2.8 | −3.7 | |||||||||||||||||
(all) (K) | −2.5 | −3.8 | |||||||||||||||||
max/min(selected) (K) | −0.8/−5.8 | −1.8/−6.7 | |||||||||||||||||
max/min(all) (K) | −0.4/−6.6 | −0.2/−7.5 |
Appendix C
ID | AGCx | AGCy | AGC12 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Logger ID | Xa | Xb | Ya | 12f |
Shape | | | | |
Scale | 1:400,000 | 1:100,000 | 1:40,000 | |
Latitude/Longitude | 52.478976 N/13.467163 E | 52.479141 N/13.466929 E | 52.522476 N/13.272697 E | 52.523577 N/13.269642 E |
Reason for the exclusion of the data | Missing data: 81% | Missing data: 49% | Missing data: 21% | |
Exclusion of Xa led to exclusion of AGCx, because the minimum number of two measurement stations per AGC was not provided. |
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Land Surface Characteristic | Abbreviation in this Study | Description | Unit | Sampled AGCs | All AGCs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Floor space index within AGCs | FSI inside | total covered area on all floors of all buildings on a certain plot divided by the area of the plot; within the borders of an AGC | – | 0.3 | 0.4 |
Floor space index within a buffer of 500 m around AGCs | FSI outside | total covered area on all floors of all buildings on a certain plot divided by the area of the plot; in a 500-m buffer around an AGC | – | 1.0 | 0.3 |
Degree of sealed surface within AGCs | Sealing inside | Degree of impervious surfaces (including buildings) of the total surface area; within the borders of an AGC | % | 30.6 | 33.3 |
Degree of sealed surface within a buffer of 500 m around AGCs | Sealing outside | Degree of impervious surfaces (including buildings) of the total surface area; in a 500 m buffer around an AGC | % | 49.0 | 35.4 |
Size | Size | Size of an AGC | km2 | 0.1 | 0.05 |
Perimeter | Perimeter | Perimeter of an AGC | km | 2.5 | 1.45 |
Edge-to-area ratio | Shape complexity | Perimeter divided by the area | km−1 | 40.6 | 67.8 |
Distance to ALEX | Distance to city center | Distance from the border of an AGC to the measurement station ALEX | km | 7.1 | 10.8 |
Distance (km) | 4.1–5 | 5.1–6 | 6.1–7 | 7.1–8 | 8.1–9 | >9 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AGC | 1 & 2 | 3, 4 & 5 | 6 & 7 | 8 & 9 | 10 & 11 | 12 & 13 |
(°C) | Precipitation (mm) | Cloud Cover (octas) | Sunshine (h) | Windspeed (m/s) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Measurement period | 19.5 | 0.5 | 4.2 | 7.7 | 3.4 |
All nights | 15.7 | 0.0 | 4.0 | 0.0 | 2.7 |
Nights with calm and clear weather conditions | 18.1 | 0.0 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 2.7 |
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Rost, A.T.; Liste, V.; Seidel, C.; Matscheroth, L.; Otto, M.; Meier, F.; Fenner, D. How Cool Are Allotment Gardens? A Case Study of Nocturnal Air Temperature Differences in Berlin, Germany. Atmosphere 2020, 11, 500. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11050500
Rost AT, Liste V, Seidel C, Matscheroth L, Otto M, Meier F, Fenner D. How Cool Are Allotment Gardens? A Case Study of Nocturnal Air Temperature Differences in Berlin, Germany. Atmosphere. 2020; 11(5):500. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11050500
Chicago/Turabian StyleRost, Annemarie Tabea, Victoria Liste, Corinna Seidel, Lea Matscheroth, Marco Otto, Fred Meier, and Daniel Fenner. 2020. "How Cool Are Allotment Gardens? A Case Study of Nocturnal Air Temperature Differences in Berlin, Germany" Atmosphere 11, no. 5: 500. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11050500