[go: up one dir, main page]
Skip to main content

Advertisement

Springer Nature Link
Log in

Chemistry of the heavily urbanized Bagmati River system in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal: export of organic matter, nutrients, major ions, silica, and metals

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Environmental Earth Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Water quality in less-developed countries is often subject to substantial degradation, but is rarely studied in a systematic way. The concentration and flux of major ions, carbon, nitrogen, silicon, and trace metals in the heavily urbanized Bagmati River within Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, are reported. The concentrations of all chemical species increased with distance downstream with the exceptions of protons and nitrate, and showed strong relationships with population density adjacent to the river. Total dissolved nitrogen (TDN), dominated by NH4, was found in high concentrations along the Bagmati drainage system. The export of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and TDN were 23 and 33 tons km−2 year−1, respectively, at the outlet point of the Kathmandu Valley, much higher than in relatively undeveloped watersheds. The cationic and silica fluxes were 106 and 18 tons km−2 year−1 at the outlet of the Bagmati within Kathmandu Valley, and 36 and 32 tons km−2 year−1 from the relatively pristine headwater area. The difference between headwaters and the urban site suggests that the apparent weathering flux is three times higher than the actual weathering rate in the heavily urbanized Bagmati basin. Fluxes of cations and silica are above the world average, as well as fluxes from densely populated North American and European watersheds. End-member composition of anthropogenic sources like sewage or agricultural runoff is needed to understand the drivers of this high rate of apparent weathering.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.

References

  • Alexandre A, Muenier J-D, Colin F, Koud J-M (1997) Plant impact on the biogeochemical cycle of silicon and related weathering processes. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 61(3):677–682

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amiotte Suchet P, Probst JL (1995) A global model for present day atmospheric/soil CO2 consumption by chemical erosion of continental rocks (GEM-CO2). Tellus Ser B 47:273–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andrews MY, Ague JJ, Berner RA (2008) Weathering of soil minerals by angiosperm and gymnosperm trees. Mineral Mag 72(1):11–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • APHA American public health association (1995) Standard method for the examination of water and waste water. In: Eaton AD, Clesceri LS, Greenberg AE (eds) 19th edn. American Public Health Association, Washington

  • ASTM, American society for testing and materials (2007) Analytical methods for cations, ASTM D 6919–03. West Conshohocken, Pa

    Google Scholar 

  • Berner RA (1992) Weathering, plants, and the long-term carbon cycle. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 56:3225–3231

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatt MP, Gardner K (2009) Variation in DOC and trace metal concentration along the heavily urbanized basin in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Environ Geol 58(4):867–876

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatt MP, McDowell WH (2007a) Controls on major solutes within the drainage network of a rapidly weathering tropical watershed. Water Resour Res 43:W11402. doi:10.1029/2007WR005915

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatt MP, McDowell WH (2007b) Evolution of chemistry along the Bagmati drainage network in Kathmandu Valley. Water Air Soil Pollut 185:165–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • BIWMP Bagmati integrated watershed management programme (2003) An introduction to the Bagmati integrated watershed management programme, his majesty’s government of Nepal, ministry of forest and soil conservation and commission of European Communities, Kathmandu

  • Buss HL, Mathur R, White AF, Brantley SL (2010) Phosphorus and iron cycling in deep saprolite, Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico. Chem Geol 269:52–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caraco NF, Cole JJ (1999) Human impact on nitrate export: an analysis using major world rivers. Ambio 28(2):167–170

    Google Scholar 

  • CBS central bureau of statistics (2011) Statistical year book of Nepal. central bureau of statistics. Government of Nepal, Kathmandu

  • Dalai TK, Krishnaswami S, Sarin SS (2002) Major ion chemistry in the headwaters of the Yamuna river system: chemical weathering, its temperature dependence and CO2 consumption in the Himalaya. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 66(19):3397–3416

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daley ML, Potter JD, McDowell WH (2009) Salinization of urbanizing New Hampshire streams and groundwater: effects of road salt and hydrologic variability. J North Am Benthol Soc 28(4):929–940

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dessert C, Dupre B, Gaillardet J, Francois L, Allegre C (2003) Basalt weathering rate laws and the impacts of basalt weathering on the global carbon cycle. Chem Geol 202:257–273

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DHM (department of hydrology and meteorology) (1996) Water quality data of rivers of Kathmandu Valley 1992–1995. DHM, Nepal, p 69

    Google Scholar 

  • DHM (department of hydrology and meteorology) (2003) Meteorological data of Kathmandu Valley. DHM, Kathmandu

    Google Scholar 

  • DHM (department of hydrology and meteorology) (2008) Water quality summary 1992–2006, DHM, Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu

  • DNPWC (department of national parks and wildlife conservation) (2003) Shivapuri national park. His Majesty’s Government, Kathmandu

    Google Scholar 

  • Drever JI (1994) The effect of land plants on weathering rates of silicate minerals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 58(10):2325–2332

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Driscoll CT, Fuller RD, Simone DM (1988) Longitudinal variation in trace metal concentrations in a northern forested ecosystem. J Environ Qual 17:101–107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durr HH, Meybeck M, Durr SH (2005) Lithologic composition of the Earth’s continental surfaces derived from a new digital map emphasizing riverine material transfer. Global Biogeochem Cycles 19: GB4S10, doi:10.1029/2005GB002515

  • Edmond JM, Palmer MR, Measures CI, Grant B, Stallard RF (1995) The fluvial geochemistry and denudation rate of the Guayana shield in Venezuala, Columbia and Brazil. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 59(16):3301–3325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ENPHO (environment and public health organization) (1997) Monitoring and assessment of water quality in the Shivapuri Watershed. HMG/FAO, Kathmandu, pp 1–144

    Google Scholar 

  • Flintrop C, Hohlmann B, Jasper T, Korte C, Podlaha OG, Scheele S, Veizer J (1996) Anatomy of pollution: rivers of north Rhine Westphalia, Germany. Am J Sci 296:59–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • France-Lanord C, Evans M, Hurtrez J-E, Riotte J (2003) Annual dissolved fluxes from central Nepal rivers: budget of chemical erosion in the Himalayas. C R Geosci 335:1131–1140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaillardet J, Dupre B, Louvat P, Allegre CJ (1999) Global silicate weathering and CO2 consumption rates deduced from the chemistry of large rivers. Chem Geol 159(17):3–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garrels RM, Mackenzie FT (1971) Evolution of sedimentary rocks. Norton, New York, p 397

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs RJ (1967) The geochemistry of the Amazon river system: part I. The factors that controls the salinity and the composition and concentration of the suspended solids. Geol Soc Am Bullet 78:1203–1232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartmann J, Jansen N, Kempe S, Durr HH (2007) Geochemistry of the river Rhine and the upper Danube: recent trends and lithological influence on baselines. J Environ Sci Sust Soc 1:39–46

    Google Scholar 

  • He B, Kanae S, Oki T, Hirabayashi Y, Yamashiki Y, Takara K (2011) Assessment of Global nitrogen pollution in rivers using an integrated biogeochemical modeling framework. Water Res 45:2573–2586

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howarth RW, Billen G, Dwaney D, Townsend A, Jaworski N, Lajtha K, Downing JA, Elmgren R, Caraco N, Jordan T, Berendse F, Freney J, Kudeyarov V, Murdoch P, Zhao-Liang Z (1996) Regional nitrogen budgets and riverine N and P fluxes for the drainages to the North Atlantic ocean: natural and human influences. Biogeochemistry 35:75–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hren MT, Hilley GE, Chamberlain CP (2007) The relationship between tectonic uplift and chemical weathering rates in the Washington cascades: field measurement and model predictions. Am J Sci 307:1041–1063

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu MH, Stallard RF, Edmond JM (1982) Major ion chemistry of some large Chinese rivers. Nature 298:550–553

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ICPDR (2004) Facts and figures about the Danube river basin. Danube River basin district, part-A-Roof Report, ICPDR Document IC/077, Nepal

  • IDRS (integrated development and research services (P) Ltd) (2001) Final Report for Bagmati River basin study impact of reservoirs and diversion. Department of hydrology and meteorology. His Majesty’s Government, Kathmandu, p 45

    Google Scholar 

  • JICA (Japan international cooperation agency) (1990) Groundwater management project in the Kathmandu Valley. His majesty’s government of Nepal, Nepal Water Supply Corporation, pp A1–F7

  • Juttner I, Sharma S, Dahal BM, Ormerod SJ, Chimonides PJ, Cox EJ (2003) Diatoms as indicators of stream quality in the Kathmandu Valley and middle hills of Nepal and India. Freshw Biol 48:2065–2084

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kannel PR, Lee S, Kanel SR, Khan SP, Lee Y-S (2007) Spatial-temporal variation and comparative assessment of water qualities of urban river system: a case study of the river Bagmati (Nepal). Environ Monit Assess 129:433–459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karna SK, Harada H (2001) Surface water pollution in three urban territories of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh. Environ Manag 28(4):483–496

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaushal SS, Groffman PM, Likens GE, Bell KT, Stack WP, Kelly VR, Band LE, Fisher GT (2005) Increased salinization of freshwater in the Northeastern United States. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:13517–13520

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kempe S (1984) Sink of the anthropogenically enhanced-carbon cycle in surface fresh waters. J Geophys Res 89(D3):4657–4676. doi:10.1029/JD089iD03p04657

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • KMC (Kathmandu metropolitan city) (2001) Information system center. Kathmandu Metropolitan City, Kathmandu

    Google Scholar 

  • Louvat P, Allegre CJ (1997) Present denudation rates on the island of Reunion determined by river geochemistry: basalt weathering and mass budget between chemical and mechanical erosions. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 61:3645–3669

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ITECO Nepal (P) Ltd (2003) Feasibility study and detailed engineering design to update master plan for Bagmati area sewage project, final report. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, pp 1–69

  • McDowell WH, Asbury CE (1994) Export of carbon, nitrogen, and major ions from three tropical montane watersheds. Limn Ocean 39(1):111–125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDowell WH, Lugo AE, James A (1995) Export of nutrients and major ions from Caribbean catchments. J. North Am Benthol Soc 14(1):12–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merriam J, McDowell WH, Currie WS (1996) A high temperature catalytic technique for determining total dissolved nitrogen. Soil Sci Soc Am J 60:1050–1055

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meybeck M (1998) Man and river interface: multiple impacts on water and particulate chemistry illustrated in the Seine river basin. Hydrobiologia 373(374):1–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meybeck M, Ragu A (1997) River discharges to the oceans: an assessment of suspended solids, major ions and nutrients. UNEP/WHO, environment of information and assessment division, UNEP, Nairobi, p 245

  • MHPP (ministry of housing and physical planning, Nepal) (1994) The Bagmati basin management strategy and invest program. Final report. Study conducted by Stanley international, Canada

  • Millot R, Gaillardet J, Dupre B, Allegre CJ (2002) The global control of silicate weathering rates and the coupling with physical erosion: new insights from rivers of the Canadian shield. Earth Planet Sci Lett 196:83–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moosdorf N, Hartmann J, Lauerwald R, Hagedorn B, Kempe S (2011) Atmospheric CO2 consumption by chemical weathering in North America. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 75:7829–7854

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moulton KL, West J, Berner RA (2000) Solute flux and mineral mass balance approaches to the quantification of plant effects on silicate weathering. Am J Sci 300(7):539–570

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Navarre-Sitchler A, Brantley S (2007) Basalt weathering across scales. Earth Planet Sci Lett 261:321–334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NWSC (Nepal water supply corporation) (2001) Annual Report. NWSC, Kathmandu, pp 1–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters NE (1984) Evaluation of environmental factors affecting yields of major dissolved ions of streams in the United States. USGS Water Supply Pap 2228:39

    Google Scholar 

  • Renolds RC, Johnson NM (1972) Chemical weathering in the temperate glacial environment of the northern Cascade Mountains. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 36:537–544

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roy S, Gaillardet J, Allegre CJ (1999) Geochemistry of dissolved and suspended loads of the Seine river, France: anthropogenic impact, carbonate and silicate weathering. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 63(9):1277–1292

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarin MM, Krishnaswami S, Dilli K, Somayajulu BLK, Moore WS (1989) Major ion chemistry of the Ganga–Brahmaputra river system: weathering processes and fluxes to the Bay of Bengal. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 53:997–1009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shrestha OM, Koirala A, Karmacharya SL, Pradhanga UB, Pradhan PM, Karmacharya R, Hanisch J, Kerntke M, Joshi PR, Stiner L, Busch K, Jnawali BM, Maske ND, Tuladhar GB, Kaphle KP (1998) Engineering and environmental geology map of the Kathmandu Valley. Department of mines and geology, his majesty’s government, Kathmandu

  • Spitzy A, Leenheers J (1991) Dissolved organic carbon in rivers. In: Biogeochemistry of major world rivers. SCOPE 42, p 380

  • Stallard RF, Edmond JM (1983) Geochemistry of the Amazon: 2. The influence of geology and weathering environment on the dissolved load. J Geophys Res 88(C14):9671–9688

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steele TD, Henneberg S, Behrawan H (2010) Water quality data assessment of long tem time trends, Weser river basin, Germany: a case study. Department of geoinformatics, hydrology and modeling. Friedrich-Schiller University, Germany, p 14

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorp JH, Lamberti GA, Casper AF (2005) St. Lawrence river basin. In: Benke AC, Cushing CE (eds) Rivers of North America academic press, Elsevier Inc., San Diego, pp 983–1028

  • TRB (transportation research board) (1991) Highway deicing: comparing salt and calcium magnesium acetate. National Research Council, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner BF, Stallard RF, Brantley SL (2003) Investigation of in situ weathering of quartz diorite bedrock in the Rio Icacos basin, Luquillo experimental forest, Puerto Rico. Chem Geol 202:313–341

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNEP (United Nations environment programme) (2010) Freshwater in Europe: facts figures and maps, UNEP/DEWA: Europe, Switzerland

  • US EPA (United States environmental protection agency (2007) Method for the determination of anions, US EPA no. 300.1, USA

  • US EPA (United States environmental protection agency) (1991) Method for the determination of metals in environmental samples. EPA/600/4-91/010, Office of research and development, Washington

  • US EPA (United States environmental protection agency) (2002) Method for the determination of dissolved organic carbon, US EPA no. 415.1, USA

  • US EPA (United States environmental protection agency) (2005) Method for the determination of ammonium, US EPA no. 350.1, USA

  • US EPA (United States environmental protection agency) (2005) Method for the determination of phosphate, US EPA no. 365.1, USA

  • US EPA (United States environmental protection agency) (2005) Method for the determination of silica, US EPA no. 370.1, USA

  • Van Dokkum HP, Hulskotte JHJ, Kramer KJM, Wilmot J (2004) Emission, fate and effects of soluble silicates (waterglass) in the aquatic environment. Environ Sci Technol 38(2):515–521

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vorosmarty CJ, McIntyre PB, Gessner MO, Dudgeon D, Prusevich A, Green P, Glodden S, Bunn SE, Sullivan CA, Liermann CR, Davies PM (2010) Global threats to human water security and river biodiversity. Nature 467:555–561

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • West AJ, Galy A, Bickle M (2005) Tectonic and climatic controls on silicate weathering. Earth Planet Sci Lett 235(1–2):211–228

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White AF, Blum AE (1995) Effects of climate on chemical weathering in watersheds. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 59(9):1729–1747

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (world health organization) (2006) Guideline for drinking water quality, 3rd edn. vol 1, Geneva, p 494

  • WHO (world health organization) (2008) Guideline for drinking water quality. 3rd edn, vol 1, Geneva, p515

  • Wu W, Xu S, Yang J, Yin H (2008) Silicate weathering and CO2 consumption deduced from the seven Chinese rivers originating in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Chem Geol 249:307–320

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang J, Zhang ZF, Liu SM, Wu Y, Xiong H, Chen HT (1999) Human impacts on the large world rivers: would the Chanjiang (Yangtze River) be an illustration? Global Biogeochem Cycle 13(4):1099–1105

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Jeff Merriam, Michelle Daley, Jody Potter, and Scott Greenwood for their help in the lab and Ronny Lauerwald for his help in drawing the watershed map. Authors also thank the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Department of Survey-Ministry of Land Reform, Department of Mines and Geology, Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal Water Supply Corporation, Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Government of Nepal for providing useful information. The paper benefited from insightful review comments by anonymous reviewers and the authors thank Prof. Gunter Doerhoefer for his suggestions and patience. Thanks to the members of the Aquatic Ecology Center of Kathmandu University for their help and thanks to many individuals for their help during the field work.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Maya P. Bhatt

    Present address: Central Department of Environmental Sciences, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for the Biogeochemistry and Marine Chemistry, Klima Campus: University of Hamburg, Bundesstrasse 55, 20146, Hamburg, Germany

    Maya P. Bhatt & Jens Hartmann

  2. Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA

    Maya P. Bhatt & William H. McDowell

  3. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Environmental Research Group, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA

    Maya P. Bhatt & Kevin H. Gardner

Authors
  1. Maya P. Bhatt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. William H. McDowell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kevin H. Gardner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jens Hartmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maya P. Bhatt.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bhatt, M.P., McDowell, W.H., Gardner, K.H. et al. Chemistry of the heavily urbanized Bagmati River system in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal: export of organic matter, nutrients, major ions, silica, and metals. Environ Earth Sci 71, 911–922 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2494-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2494-9

Keywords