Abstract
Microplastics, plastic particles <5 mm, are an emerging concern in aquatic ecosystems. Because microplastics are small, they are available to many filter-feeding organisms, which can then be consumed by higher trophic level organisms, including humans. This study documents the quantity of microplastics present in wild and cultured Manila clams (Venerupis philippinarum). Three active shellfish farms and three reference beaches (i.e., non-shellfish farm sites) in Baynes Sound, British Columbia were chosen to examine the microplastic concentrations in wild and cultured Manila clams. Microplastics were isolated using a nitric acid digestion technique and enumerated from 54 clams (27 farmed and 27 non-farmed). Qualitative attributes, such as colour and microplastic type (fiber, fragment, or film) also were recorded. There was no significant difference (F = 1.29; df = 1,4; P = 0.289) between microplastic concentrations in cultured and wild clams. Microplastic concentrations ranged from 0.07 to 5.47 particles/g (from reference beach and shellfish farm clams, respectively). Fibers were the dominant microplastic (90 %); colourless and dark gray fibers were the most common colours observed (36 and 26 %, respectively). Although this indicates that microplastics are definitely present in seafood consumed by humans, shellfish aquaculture operations do not appear to be increasing microplastic concentrations in farmed clams in this region.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.References
Andrady AL (2011) Microplastics in the marine environment. Mar Pollut Bull 62:1596–1605. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.05.030
Arthur C, Baker J, Bamford H (eds) (2009) Proceedings of the international research workshop on the occurrence, effects and fate of microplastic marine debris. Sept 9–11, 2008. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS-OR&R-30
Avio CG, Gorbi S, Milan M, Benedetti M, Fattorini D, d’Errico G, Pauletto M, Bargelloni L, Regoli F (2015) Pollutants bioavailability and toxicological risk from microplastics to marine mussels. Environ Pollut 198:211–222. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2014.12.021
Bendell LI (2015) Favored use of anti-predator netting (APN) applied for the farming of clams leads to little benefits to industry while increasing nearshore impacts and plastics pollution. Mar Pollut Bull 91:22–28. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.12.043
Besseling E, Foekema EM, Van Franeker JA, Leopold MF, Kühn S, Bravo Rebolledo EL, Heße Mielke L, Ijzer J, Kamminga P, Koelmans AA (2015) Microplastic in a macro filter feeder: Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae. Mar Pollut Bull 95:248–252. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.04.007
Boerger CM, Lattin GL, Moore SL, Moore CJ (2010) Plastic ingestion by planktivorous fishes in the North Pacific Central Gyre. Mar Pollut Bull 60:2275–2278. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.08.007
Browne MA, Dissanayake A, Galloway TS, Lowe DM, Thompson RC (2008) Ingested microscopic plastic translocates to the circulatory system of the mussel, Mytilus edulis (L.). Environ Sci Technol 42:5026–5031. doi:10.1021/es800249a
Browne MA, Crump P, Niven SJ, Teuten E, Tonkin A, Galloway T, Thompson R (2011) Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines woldwide: sources and sinks. Environ Sci Technol 45:9175–9179. doi:10.1021/es201811s
Claessens M, Van Cauwenberghe L, Vandegehuchte MB, Janssen CR (2013) New techniques for the detection of microplastics in sediments and field collected organisms. Mar Pollut Bull 70:227–233
Cluzard M, Kazmiruk TN, Kazmiruk VD, Bendell LI (2015) Intertidal concentrations of microplastics and their influence on ammonium cycling as related to the shellfish industry. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. doi:10.1007/s00244-015-0156-5
Cole M, Lindeque P, Halsband C, Galloway TS (2011) Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review. Mar Pollut Bull 62:2588–2597. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.09.025
Cole M, Lindeque P, Fileman E, Halsband C, Galloway TS (2015) The impact of polystyrene microplastics on feeding, function and fecundity in the marine copepod Calanus helgolandicus. Environ Sci Technol 49:1130–1137. doi:10.1021/es504525u
Comox Valley Regional District (CVRD) (2015) Regional sewer initiatives: south region. http://www.comoxvalleyrd.ca/EN/main/departments/sewer-services/regional-sewer-initiatives/south-region.html. Accessed 19 Feb 2015
Cusson M, Tremblay R, Daigle G, Roussy M (2005) Modeling the depuration potential of blue mussels (Mytilus spp.) in response to thermal shock. Aquaculture 250:183–193. doi:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.03.045
De Witte B, Devriese L, Bekaert K, Hoffman S, Vandermeersch G, Cooreman K, Robbens J (2014) Quality assessment of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis): comparison between commercial and wild types. Mar Pollut Bull 85:146–155. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.06.006
Desforges JPW, Galbraith M, Dangerfield N, Ross PS (2014) Widespread distribution of microplastics in subsurface seawater in the NE Pacific Ocean. Mar Pollut Bull 79:94–99. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.12.035
Desforges JP, Galbraith M, Ross PS (2015) Ingestion of microplastics by zooplankton in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 69:320–330. doi:10.1007/s00244-015-0172-5
Duis K, Coors A (2016) Microplastics in the aquatic and terrestrial environment: sources (with a specific focus on personal care products), fate and effects. Environ Sci Eur 28:2. doi:10.1186/s12302-015-0069-y
Eerkes-Medrano D, Thompson RC, Aldridge DC (2015) Microplastics in freshwater systems: a review of the emerging threats, identification of knowledge gaps and prioritisation of research needs. Water Res 75:63–82. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2015.02.012
Endo S, Takizawa R, Okuda K, Takada H, Chiba K, Kanehiro H, Ogi H, Yamashita R, Date T (2005) Concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in beached resin pellets: variability among individual particles and regional differences. Mar Pollut Bull 50:1103–1114. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2005.04.030
Eriksen M, Mason S, Wilson S, Box C, Zellers A, Edwards W, Farley H, Amato S (2013) Microplastic pollution in the surface waters of the Laurentian Great Lakes. Mar Pollut Bull 77:177–182. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.10.007
Fendall LS, Sewell MA (2009) Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: microplastics in facial cleansers. Mar Pollut Bull 58:1225–1228. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.04.025
Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2013) Canadian aquaculture production statistics. Aquaculture production quantities and values. http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/stats/aqua/aqua13-eng.htm. Accessed 19 Feb 2015
Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2014) Species farmed in Canada. http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/aquaculture/sector-secteur/species-especes/index-eng.htm. Accessed 19 Feb 2015
Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2015) Farmed mussels. Aquaculture species farmed in Canada. http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/aquaculture/sector-secteur/species-especes/mussels-moules-eng.htm. Accessed 19 Feb 2015
Gillespie GE, Kronlund AR (1999) A manual for intertidal clam surveys. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2270. Fisheries and Oceans Canada Science. Government of Canada
Hadley NH, Whetsone JM (2007) Hard clam hatchery and nursery production. SRAC Publication No. 4301. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, United States of America
Hidalgo-Ruz V, Gutow L, Thompson RC, Thiel M (2012) Microplastics in the marine environment: a review of the methods used for identification and quantification. Environ Sci Technol 46:3060–3075. doi:10.1021/es2031505
Hinojosa IA, Thiel M (2009) Floating marine debris in fjords, gulfs and channels of southern Chile. Mar Pollut Bull 58:341–350. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.10.020
Jamieson GS, Chew L, Gillespie G, Robinson A, Bendell-Young L, Heath W, Bravender B, Tompkins A, Nishimura D, Doucette P (2001) Phase 0 Review of the environmental impacts of intertidal shellfish aquaculture in Baynes Sound. Fisheries and Oceans Science Research Document 2001/125. Government of Canada
Lechner A, Keckeis H, Lumesberger-Loisl F, Zens B, Krusch R, Tritthart M, Glas M, Schludermann E (2014) The Danube so colourful: a potpourri of plastic litter outnumbers fish larvae in Europe’s second largest river. Environ Pollut 188:177–181. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2014.02.006
Li J, Yang D, Li L, Jabeen K, Shi H (2015) Microplastics in commercial bivalves from China. Environ Pollut 207:190–195. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2015.09.018
Lusher AL, McHugh M, Thompson RC (2013) Occurrence of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract of pelagic and demersal fish from the English Channel. Mar Pollut Bull 67:94–99. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.11.028
Mathalon A, Hill P (2014) Microplastic fibers in the intertidal ecosystem surrounding Halifax Harbor, Nova Scotia. Mar Pollut Bull 81:69–79. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.02.018
Mato Y, Isobe T, Takada H, Kanehiro H, Ohtake C, Kaminuma T (2001) Plastic resin pellets as a transport medium for toxic chemicals in the marine environment. Environ Sci Technol 35:318
McCormick AR (2015) Anthropogenic litter and microplastic in urban streams: abundance, source, and fate. Dissertation, Loyola University
Moore, CJ (2008) Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: a rapidly increasing, long-term threat. Environ Res 108:131–139. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.025
Newton P, Gilchris A (2010) Technical summary of intrinsic vulnerability mapping methods for Vancouver Island. Vancouver Island Water Resources Vulnerability Mapping Project - Phase 2. Vancouver Island University
Nobre CR, Santana MFM, Maluf A, Cortez FS, Cesar A, Pereira CDS, Turra A (2015) Assessment of microplastic toxicity to embryonic development of the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea). Mar Pollut Bull 92:99–104. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.12.050
Ogata Y, Takada H, Mizukawa K et al (2009) International pellet watch: global monitoring of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in coastal waters. 1. Initial phase data on PCBs, DDTs, and HCHs. Mar Pollut Bull 58:1437–1446. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.06.014
Rios LM, Moore C, Jones PR (2007) Persistent organic pollutants carried by synthetic polymers in the ocean environment. Mar Pollut Bull 54:1230–1237. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.022
Rocha-Santos T, Duarte AC (2015) A critical overview of the analytical approaches to the occurrence, the fate and the behavior of microplastics in the environment. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 65:47–53. doi:10.1016/j.trac.2014.10.011
Song YK, Hong SH, Jang M, Han GM, Rani M, Lee J, Shim WJ (2015) A comparison of microscopic and spectroscopic identification methods for analysis of microplastics in environmental samples. Mar Pollut Bull 93:202–209. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.01.015
Stolte A, Forster S, Gerdts G, Schubert H (2015) Microplastic concentrations in beach sediments along the German Baltic coast. Mar Pollut Bull 99:216–229. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.022
Teuten EL, Rowland SJ, Galloway TS, Thompson RC (2007) Potential for plastics to transport hydrophobic contaminants. Environ Sci Technol 41:7759–7764. doi:10.1021/es071737s
Teuten EL, Saquing JM, Knappe DRU et al (2009) Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364:2027–2045. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0284
Van Cauwenberghe L, Janssen CR (2014) Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption. Environ Pollut 193:65–70. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2014.06.010
Van Cauwenberghe L, Claessens M, Vandegehuchte MB, Janssen CR (2015) Microplastics are taken up by mussels (Mytilus edulis) and lugworms (Arenicola marina) living in natural habitats. Environ Pollut 199:10–17. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2015.01.008
Vandermeersch G, Van Cauwenberghe L, Janssen CR, Antonio M, Kit G, Gabriella F, Michiel KJJ, Jorge D, Karen B, Johan R, Lisa D (2015) A critical view on microplastic quantification in aquatic organisms. Environ Res 143:46–55. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2015.07.016
von Moos N, Burkhardt-Holm P, Koehler A (2012) Uptake and effects of microplastics on cells and tissue of the Blue mussel Mytilus edulis L. after an experimental exposure. Environ Sci Technol 46:327–335. doi:10.1021/es302332w
Wright SL, Rowe D, Thompson RC, Galloway TS (2013a) Microplastic ingestion decreases energy reserves in marine worms. Curr Biol 23:R1031–R1033. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2013.10.068
Wright SL, Thompson RC, Galloway TS (2013b) The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: a review. Environ Pollut. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2013.02.031
Zubris KAV, Richards BK (2005) Synthetic fibers as an indicator of land application of sludge. Environ Pollut 138:201–211. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2005.04.013
Acknowledgments
Funding for this project was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (Undergraduate Student Research Award), the Canada Foundation for Innovation, and the British Columbia Knowledge Development Fund. Thank you to Dr. Eric Demers and Dr. Jane Watson for reviewing early stages of this manuscript, Dr. Peter Ross and Dr. Moira Galbraith for their extensive assistance and training, and Brenna Collicutt and Robert Bourdon for development of field and lab protocols. The authors would specifically like to thank the three shellfish farmers who allowed us access to their farms and clams.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Sarah E. Dudas is designated as a shared first authorship.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Davidson, K., Dudas, S.E. Microplastic Ingestion by Wild and Cultured Manila Clams (Venerupis philippinarum) from Baynes Sound, British Columbia. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 71, 147–156 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-016-0286-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-016-0286-4