J F Pagel
Cape Breton University, Psychology, Faculty Member
- Dr. James Pagel is an Associate Clinical Professor at the University of Colorado School of Medicine, and Director of ... moreDr. James Pagel is an Associate Clinical Professor at the University of Colorado School of Medicine, and Director of Rocky Mt. Sleep. He is the co-editor of one of the major Sleep Medicine texts: Primary Care Sleep Medicine (Humana, 2007) (2nd Edition, Springer, 2014). Over the last 35 years, his clinical and research work, primarily focused on the cognitive state of dreaming, has resulted in more than 180 publications. These include work on the effects of dreaming on waking behavior, dreams and disasters, dream and nightmare use in creative process and film making, parasomnias, machine dreaming, narcolepsy, pediatric sleep, and non-dreaming, as well as the effects of insomnia, sleep apnea, and medications on dreaming and nightmares. His books include: The Limits of Dream: A Scientific Exploration of the Mind/Brain Interface (Academic Press – Elsevier, 2007), Dreaming and Nightmares (Ed.) (Saunders, 2010), Dream Science: Exploring the Forms of Consciousness (Academic Press, 2014) and Machine Dreaming and Consciousness (Academic Press, 2017).edit
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Pharmacological agents known to induce central nervous system (CNS) effects and/or CNS side effects almost always affect sleep. These effects include alteration in cognitive levels of sleepiness/alertness, affects on the symptoms of... more
Pharmacological agents known to induce central nervous system (CNS) effects and/or CNS side effects almost always affect sleep. These effects include alteration in cognitive levels of sleepiness/alertness, affects on the symptoms of medical, sleep, and psychiatric diagnoses known to affect sleep, and/or alteration of cognitive activity during sleep – generally reported as dreaming. Most drugs affecting sleep exert effects through the γ-aminobutyrate neurotransmitter receptor system. The sleep-associated cognitive states are neurochemically complex. Medications that have the clinical effects of arousal (insomnia) and/or sedation are those that alter reports of dreaming and nightmares.
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Humans utilize sensory and motor systems developed genetically, physically and socially for interfacing with our external environment. We use these same systems to interface in our interactions with artificial intelligence. There are... more
Humans utilize sensory and motor systems developed genetically, physically and socially for interfacing with our external environment. We use these same systems to interface in our interactions with artificial intelligence. There are other functioning central nervous system (CNS) systems, however, involved in cognitive processing for which the function and environmental interface is less clear. The synchronous physiologic electrical field system utilizes broadcast extracellular electrical fields for a wide variety of CNS functions. The operations of this system are usually non-conscious and most apparent during sleep (especially the conscious states of sleep that include dreaming), and un-focused waking. The electrical fields of this system are altered and affected by both internal and external stimuli. These fields can be monitored and analyzed by artificial intelligence (AI) systems, and independently of human input, AI systems can utilize similar frequency based electrical potent...
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Versions of dreaming and consciousness are present in our closest relatives, as well as in creatures existing on only the edge of biological existence. The question of “dreaming” in dogs is addressed as well as its closest human... more
Versions of dreaming and consciousness are present in our closest relatives, as well as in creatures existing on only the edge of biological existence. The question of “dreaming” in dogs is addressed as well as its closest human equivalents: REM behavior disorder and periodic limb movements of sleep. The evidence for dream functions (threat rehearsal, emotional processing, and creativity) is considered from an individual and species perspective. Consciousness is considered in animals, humans, and machines as based on primary, secondary, and tertiary constructs. Aspects of consciousness (attention, intention, self-awareness, and reflexive consciousness) are also defined and compared.
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The brain component is different for each of the cognitive states. The component of each state that could be considered as mind varies for each state as well as between individuals. The modified Cartesian perspective is used to build a... more
The brain component is different for each of the cognitive states. The component of each state that could be considered as mind varies for each state as well as between individuals. The modified Cartesian perspective is used to build a conceptual model of the mind/brain border cutting its path across the cognitive states. Some cognitive states are predominantly brain-based and could be created as artificial constructs outside biological systems such as motor action, communication, and calculation. The border varies and changes like a fuzzy dotted line. That change would occur for the scientist as technology leads to an increased understanding of the extent of the brain basis for each of these states. That change occurs for each individual through the experience of life. The relative component of mind and brain, the looseness and/or concreteness of the border, are likely to change, and to be different in different individuals. A focus on psychoanalytic theories of mind is helpful in ...
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In order to determine whether AI systems have the capacity to experience dream-like cognition, we must first attempt to define what we call dreaming. Based on archeological and historic records, dreaming has been a human topic of study... more
In order to determine whether AI systems have the capacity to experience dream-like cognition, we must first attempt to define what we call dreaming. Based on archeological and historic records, dreaming has been a human topic of study for over 6000 years. Primary definitions used for dreaming include: (1) messages from God; (2) sleep-associated mental activity; (3) Freudian-based metaphor; (4) bizarre and hallucinatory mentation; (5) REM sleep; and (6) lucid capability during sleep. Dreams have also been studied independent of definition by addressing associated phenomenology. Dream recall, dream content, and dream affects on waking behavior have been studied in this manner. Dreaming as variously defined, and characterized based on phenomenology, may be within the capacity of some machine systems.
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Each person spends one third of his or her life asleep. It is not surprising that such a complex and pervasive cognitive state should be affected by drugs in many different ways. A philosophy that remains cogent for the CNS is that new... more
Each person spends one third of his or her life asleep. It is not surprising that such a complex and pervasive cognitive state should be affected by drugs in many different ways. A philosophy that remains cogent for the CNS is that new research almost always shows this system to be more complex than previously thought. Only a few years ago, if patients complained of difficulty sleeping, they were given pills, often dangerous and addictive pills, to induce sleep no matter what the basis of the complaint might be. Sleeping pills may be safer now, and the understanding of the sleep state itself has increased rapidly. Diagnoses are still diffuse, however, and treatments are often poorly directed. Depression is the offspring of the phlegmatic disposition and the melancholia of another era. Clinically, diagnosis is based on a global assessment of symptoms. It is likely that a diagnosis of depression may include a spectrum of underlying diseases that cannot now be clinically differentiated. Medications have multiple effects on sleep and have many side effects. Progress has, however, been made beyond mother's little pills. Insomnia is no longer a diagnosis but a complaint to be addressed--a symptom of 1 of 60 potential sleep disorders. Each of these disorders has specific and appropriate treatments.
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Each person spends one third of his or her life asleep. It is not surprising that such a complex and pervasive cognitive state should be affected by drugs in many different ways. A philosophy that remains cogent for the CNS is that new... more
Each person spends one third of his or her life asleep. It is not surprising that such a complex and pervasive cognitive state should be affected by drugs in many different ways. A philosophy that remains cogent for the CNS is that new research almost always shows this system to be more complex than previously thought. Only a few years ago, if patients complained of difficulty sleeping, they were given pills, often dangerous and addictive pills, to induce sleep no matter what the basis of the complaint might be. Sleeping pills may be safer now, and the understanding of the sleep state itself has increased rapidly. Diagnoses are still diffuse, however, and treatments are often poorly directed. Depression is the offspring of the phlegmatic disposition and the melancholia of another era. Clinically, diagnosis is based on a global assessment of symptoms. It is likely that a diagnosis of depression may include a spectrum of underlying diseases that cannot now be clinically differentiated. Medications have multiple effects on sleep and have many side effects. Progress has, however, been made beyond mother's little pills. Insomnia is no longer a diagnosis but a complaint to be addressed--a symptom of 1 of 60 potential sleep disorders. Each of these disorders has specific and appropriate treatments.
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Although sporadic nightmares may be normal responses to stress, chronic nightmares can be troublesome. Nightmare syndrome involves dreams during REM sleep and is associated with abnormal psychologic tests and psychiatric disorders. Night... more
Although sporadic nightmares may be normal responses to stress, chronic nightmares can be troublesome. Nightmare syndrome involves dreams during REM sleep and is associated with abnormal psychologic tests and psychiatric disorders. Night terrors are most common in childhood, occur during deep sleep and rarely reflect underlying pathology. Post-traumatic stress disorder produces recurrent and repetitive nightmares. The onset of nightmares in an adult is often associated with medication or illness.
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Today, computer programmers and theorists expend considerable effort in the attempt to improve system capacity for commonsense human interactions. This approach has led them to develop forms of processing in their systems that, based on... more
Today, computer programmers and theorists expend considerable effort in the attempt to improve system capacity for commonsense human interactions. This approach has led them to develop forms of processing in their systems that, based on definitions and phenomenology, meet criteria as forms of consciousness and dream. Despite the capacity for dreaming characterizing our species, in today’s world, we typically dismiss, ignore, and scientifically denigrate our capacity as humans to dream so that across the fields of neuroscience, the cognitive states of dream consciousness are rarely addressed. The only definition for dream for which machines cannot meet definition criteria is the anthropocentric definition. If only humans can dream, the machine’s potential for meeting that definition rests in its potential to attain the pretence of being human. Our dreams personify the irrationality, uniqueness, emotional difficulty, and creativity of the human experience. Most of us interact with parametrically programmed computers on a routine basis. We attempt to force our sometimes illogical, shades-of-gray reasoning into interaction with a digital yes/no interface constructed with a logical theory of mind. If we are to interact with AI in our sometimes-illogical world, we must attempt to extend the capacity for commonsense functioning to our artificial creations. Otherwise, we will be forced to adapt our logic to meet the parametric criteria of our machines. If we are to interact with AI in our sometimes-illogical world, we must attempt to extend the capacity for commonsense functioning to our artificial creations. We must help them to dream.
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A long recorded history documents reports of mental dysfunction induced by experiences of trauma. The diagnosis of PTSD grew out of war experience. It was fully incorporated into diagnostic listings after the Vietnam War. PTSD with a... more
A long recorded history documents reports of mental dysfunction induced by experiences of trauma. The diagnosis of PTSD grew out of war experience. It was fully incorporated into diagnostic listings after the Vietnam War. PTSD with a general prevalence rate between 6.1% and 9.2% has affected approximately 17–20% of deployed soldiers in recent conflicts. It consumes the greatest part of the budget of the US Department of Veterans Affairs. Yet only 7.7% of affected individuals report traumatization during war. The traumas most likely to induce PTSD in the civilian population are a result of sexual assault and intimate partner violence. The incidence of PTSD is greater than 70% among specific population groups such as displaced immigrants. While some providers still deny the diagnosis, emphasize the association of PTSD with malingering, and utilize shaming as an approach to therapy, this approach is far less common than in the past.
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The field of sleep medicine has contributed the aspect of empirical validity to the study of dreaming, a field long dominated by speculative theories based on anecdotal case reports. One aspect of this attempt toward clarity has been the... more
The field of sleep medicine has contributed the aspect of empirical validity to the study of dreaming, a field long dominated by speculative theories based on anecdotal case reports. One aspect of this attempt toward clarity has been the classification and development of consistent definitions for the topic as well as for the phenomenology on which those definitions are based. Much of the recent history of dream research has been an exploration into the electrophysiology, neurochemistry, and neuroanatomy of REM sleep. Yet today, except when addressing nightmares, it is unclear as to whether any special relationship exists between dreaming and REM sleep. Different forms of dreaming occur in all stages of sleep, with dream mentation associated with many of the parasomnias. A spectrum of complex, yet difficult to control variables affects studies of dream content; however, the variables affecting dream recall are well defined. Today, the most pressing issue concerning dreaming for the ...
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Artists in aboriginal and modern societies often use dreams as inspiration for their created images. It is a reasonable assumption that some prehistoric images were also inspired by dreams. A variety of anthropological approaches indicate... more
Artists in aboriginal and modern societies often use dreams as inspiration for their created images. It is a reasonable assumption that some prehistoric images were also inspired by dreams. A variety of anthropological approaches indicate this assumption to be a logical probability. Another way to approach this possibility is to apply modern understandings of dream science to petroglyph images with phenom-enology similar to dream-based art. Focusing on Mesa Pietra, a petroglyph site in Northern New Mexico, the argument is made for at least one petroglyph being inspired by dream-specifically, a nightmare image produced after the experience of trauma. Reaching agreement that this image is at least potentially inspired by dream opens the possibility that other images might also have been inspired by dreams and nightmares. Considering such a possibility could assist both viewers and experts in expanding their understanding and interactive dynamic with the rock art of prehistory.
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Daytime somnolence is among the most commonly reported drug side effects. The United States has the highest rate of motor vehicular accident (MVA) deaths with sedating drug use a factor in more than 30%. Sedating drug use extends beyond... more
Daytime somnolence is among the most commonly reported drug side effects. The United States has the highest rate of motor vehicular accident (MVA) deaths with sedating drug use a factor in more than 30%. Sedating drug use extends beyond drugs of abuse to sedating medications. This paper presents pharmacodynamics, performance and driving tests, and MVAs for somnolence inducing agents classified as hypnotics, sedatives, and/or sedation as a side effect. This classification, based on the drug tendency to induce next-day sedation after nighttime use, can be cogently used by prescribers, pharmacists, regulatory agencies, and in direct to consumer marketing.
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Dreams occur during all stages of sleep. Nightmares are common. They can be associated with poor sleep and diminished daytime performance. Frequent nightmares are not related to underlying psychopathology in most children and in some... more
Dreams occur during all stages of sleep. Nightmares are common. They can be associated with poor sleep and diminished daytime performance. Frequent nightmares are not related to underlying psychopathology in most children and in some "creative" adults. However, recurrent nightmares are the most defining symptom of post-traumatic stress disorder and may be associated with other psychiatric illnesses. Night terrors are arousal disorders that occur most often in children and usually occur early in the sleep period. Patients with rapid-eye-movement behavior disorder often present with nocturnal injury resulting from the acting out of dreams. Dream disorders may respond to medication, but behavioral treatment approaches have shown excellent results, particularly in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder and recurrent nightmares.
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Insomnia is a disorder of initiation and maintenance of sleep that results in daytime somnolence. The differential diagnosis of the various forms of insomnia is based primarily on the history, including information from the sleeping... more
Insomnia is a disorder of initiation and maintenance of sleep that results in daytime somnolence. The differential diagnosis of the various forms of insomnia is based primarily on the history, including information from the sleeping partner. The possibility of underlying depression or sleep apnea must be given consideration in every patient with insomnia, because inappropriate therapy may be dangerous in these instances. In general, the benzodiazepines have supplanted the traditional hypnotics in the treatment of insomnia.
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The question of AI consciousness is no longer hypothetical. It has become one of the discriminations between forms of machine consciousness and other forms of animal and human consciousness. Independently operating finite state machines... more
The question of AI consciousness is no longer hypothetical. It has become one of the discriminations between forms of machine consciousness and other forms of animal and human consciousness. Independently operating finite state machines (FSMs) have the capacity to meet some criteria set as attributes of human-equivalent consciousness including: intelligence, attention, intention, self-awareness, and autonomy. Self-learning AI systems have demonstrated the capacity to outperform typical digital operating systems when used to address problems in commonsense human environments. It is possible that these systems may eventually attain independent human-equivalent consciousness. The Internet, integrated with browsers or autonomously operating AI systems, is of sufficient complexity and integration to have the potential for consciousness. Since it is always on, Internet-based systems have added the ability to develop established states of focused attention beyond that which can be accompli...
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The interface between human and computer is limited by our individual cognitive capacities, and our human interface requirements for auditory, visual, numeric, and/or linguistic representations. For the human, dreams function as a... more
The interface between human and computer is limited by our individual cognitive capacities, and our human interface requirements for auditory, visual, numeric, and/or linguistic representations. For the human, dreams function as a bidirectional and multiplex interface between brain and mind, between sleep and wake, and between unconsciousness and consciousness. Interface capacity is currently being expanded into nonperceptual systems such as the complex CNS synchronous physiologic electrical field system primarily utilized in sleep and dream. This interface is bidirectional, shared, and subject to only limited volitional control. At times it produces an experience much like dream: a unique, bizarre, and hallucinatory experience tied to interactive processes or emotion and creativity.
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Our only access to the Paleolithic mind is through the close examination and analysis of the products of those minds. A methodology is described that can be used to search for dream-based patterns outside biology in symbols and images... more
Our only access to the Paleolithic mind is through the close examination and analysis of the products of those minds. A methodology is described that can be used to search for dream-based patterns outside biology in symbols and images that mark our species’ transition to reflexive consciousness. This approach is applied to the function that dreams serve in modern art, the potential role for dreams in Paleolithic cave art, and then applied to a range of petroglyphs created from 10,000 years ago to the present. Basic dream-associated phenomenology includes: waking life continuity, uniqueness, traumatic emotional processing, anthropomorphism, the integration of metaphorical and associative memories into narrative, and the requirement for interpretation. These characteristics are present in some petroglyphs. These same phenomenological characteristics are also present in machine-dream equivalent states.
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At some point, all of the types of psychotropic medication have been used to treat PTSD. Evidence, however, supports the use of only two very different categories of medication in treating PTSD – SSRI/SNRI antidepressants (selegiline,... more
At some point, all of the types of psychotropic medication have been used to treat PTSD. Evidence, however, supports the use of only two very different categories of medication in treating PTSD – SSRI/SNRI antidepressants (selegiline, paroxetine, and venlafaxine) and antihypertensives affecting the catecholamine system (prazosin and propranolol). Other agents having proven effectiveness in treating common comorbid diagnoses (e.g., insomnia and depression) are often useful in treating PTSD. But there is very little evidence indicating any effectiveness for many of the drugs and medications used historically, and are still being used, to treat patients with PTSD. Some of these agents have significant side effects (e.g., benzodiazepines can exacerbate the response to trauma, suppress natural capacities to cope with stress, and induce disinhibition). Many induce significant daytime sleepiness after use (e.g., antipsychotics, sedatives, sedating antidepressants, and anticonvulsants). Som...
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Thinking, intelligence, data integration, and attention are aspects of consciousness for which tests have been designed. A short history of the Computer Science field, a description, and an assessment of results obtained to this point for... more
Thinking, intelligence, data integration, and attention are aspects of consciousness for which tests have been designed. A short history of the Computer Science field, a description, and an assessment of results obtained to this point for the Turing Test and Chinese Room Test are part of this chapter. Alternative definitions of artificial intelligence are presented. Applied tests for consciousness including those for intelligence, attention, intentionality, volition, and self-awareness are discussed as applied to the assessment of machine systems. Strong AI and the concept of autonomous entities are defined and addressed. The presence of dream-equivalent states is discussed as a potential marker for human-equivalent consciousness.
This chapter presents several innovative technologies introduced to mimic human brain activities. Artificial intelligence (AI) systems are designed to respond to changing outside environmental information without additional human input. A... more
This chapter presents several innovative technologies introduced to mimic human brain activities. Artificial intelligence (AI) systems are designed to respond to changing outside environmental information without additional human input. A hardwired neural interface between the human brain and accessory computer intelligence is a common, accepted feature of futurist literature, films, and graphic novels. Newer AI systems utilize knowledge of biologic sensory systems in their motion, tactile, and proprioceptive motor sensors. The capabilities of artificial systems are a useful marker of cognitive processes that could be scientifically understood and recreated using technology. Probability and fuzzy reasoning approaches allow current systems to deal with uncertainty in the information and processing rules that define data stored in large knowledge bases. Brain-like neural networks recreate the massively parallel neuron-to-neuron line interactions of the CNS. The Mars Landers communicat...
This chapter is a summary of the data presented in the preceding chapters. An evidence-based paradigm is used to assess the quality of that data as applied to the timeline of PTSD developing after trauma. The rationale and comparative... more
This chapter is a summary of the data presented in the preceding chapters. An evidence-based paradigm is used to assess the quality of that data as applied to the timeline of PTSD developing after trauma. The rationale and comparative outcomes for the various approaches to acute trauma are accessed. At 1 month after trauma a logical PTSD diagnostic and treatment protocol is described as based on highest quality evidence. After that intervention, the rationale and evidence for the addition of complementary therapies is discussed. A simplified paradigm of evidence-based PTSD treatment recommendations concludes this chapter and the book.
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Psychoanalysis persists as a useful approach when applied to cognitive processes for which no clear biological basis could be described. Utilizing a Cartesian perspective of psychoanalysis, divorcing psychoanalysis from brain and applying... more
Psychoanalysis persists as a useful approach when applied to cognitive processes for which no clear biological basis could be described. Utilizing a Cartesian perspective of psychoanalysis, divorcing psychoanalysis from brain and applying these constructs to mind have proven to be useful approaches for exploring the border of brain and mind. Areas of cognition in which psychoanalytic approaches work include creativity, associative thought and images, art, and feelings. These cognitive areas are the same as those for which neurological correlates are lacking. The areas in which psychoanalytic approaches apply are likely to be processes of mind. Areas of cognition where psychoanalytic approaches work less well include brain-based disease, motor activity, perception, communication, memory, and intelligence. These cognitive processes are likely to be processes of brain. The psychoanalyst approaches the border of brain from the perspective of mind. From this perspective, the brain appears global and diffuse with few identifiable specifics.
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Waking is often viewed as a global state in which perceptions are integrated and acted upon. However, waking consists of multiple and often discrete states of consciousness sharing the overall characteristic of perceptual access. Some... more
Waking is often viewed as a global state in which perceptions are integrated and acted upon. However, waking consists of multiple and often discrete states of consciousness sharing the overall characteristic of perceptual access. Some waking states such as focused waking and hypnosis are states of focus; others are states such as mind wandering and drowsiness that occur during relaxation from that focus. During focused waking, thought processing is at its most exact and includes a high percentage of types of rational thought. The default network includes those brain regions involved in those processes that become more directed when goal-directed cognitive activity ceases and self-referential cognitive processing occurs. We spend a large portion of waking in such mind wandering, particularly after periods of waking focus. Focused waking and creative functioning improve when coupled with episodes of default network activity. Educational approaches emphasizing default synchronous electroencephalographic activity involved in processes of internal mentation could be beneficial for creativity and the treatment of anxiety disorders. Both hypnosis and meditation are awake states that incorporate synchronous electrophysiological activity into cognitive processing. When this electrophysiological system is active during waking, waking consciousness assumes dream-like aspects. Meditation alters central nervous system electrophysiology in various patterns based on meditative technique. Drowsiness is one of the most commonly experienced altered forms of waking consciousness, with excessive daytime sleepiness affecting the waking performance of many individuals.
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This chapter presents the results of study undertaken to understand the use of dreams in creativity by different individuals. Individuals were asked to state what they considered their creative process, and then to rate their level of... more
This chapter presents the results of study undertaken to understand the use of dreams in creativity by different individuals. Individuals were asked to state what they considered their creative process, and then to rate their level of involvement in that process. That involvement was to be rated on a scale from a hobby or interest on up to an income- producing focus. Subjects were asked to rate how often they remembered their dreams, on a scale from never to always. For this group the average reported frequency of dream recall was approximately once a week. Nearly 7% of respondents reported that they never remembered their dreams. When participants were asked to identify what they considered to be their creative process or interest, the largest response categories were physical activity (23%), crafts (15%), and music (15%). Nineteen percent reported having no creative interest. Physical activities were the most commonly described creative outlets with sports, particularly golf, hiking, camping, and gardening reported most frequently. There were other more sedentary activities described as creative pursuits such as reading, and relaxing, with six individuals stating that watching television was their creative process. Male and female respondents differ in their type of creative interest. Women are more likely than men (52.7% versus 35.7%) to report a traditional creative interest. Men were more likely than women to have a nontraditional creative interest (45.8% versus 27.4%). Responses of “no creative interest” were nearly equal between men and women.
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The central nervous system (CNS) mechanisms that are utilized in assessing visual perceptions of the outside world are also utilized in imagery. Imagery could be considered an individual's ability to develop “mental images” of objects... more
The central nervous system (CNS) mechanisms that are utilized in assessing visual perceptions of the outside world are also utilized in imagery. Imagery could be considered an individual's ability to develop “mental images” of objects without actual perceptual input. The cognitive architecture involved in image generation requires the activation of interacting memory processes. In imagery the visual representation of an object is achieved with either a global shape or part of a shape that intrinsic memory utilizes as the representation of a particular object. Visual object binding requires a cognitive interplay between perception, memory, and response. These spatial relationships based on object and category relationships often utilize a three-dimensional coordinate system in the representation of spatially related forms. Most imagery involves motion and requires the activation of CNS visual perception-based systems that recognize stereotypic patterns of object motion. The entire field of the image or a portion of the image could be altered. Dreams incorporate the perceptual operating systems of imagery. Because of this, there are perceptual characteristics of dream imagery that could be computer generated. Images created on film are likely the closest cognitive parallel to dream imagery. Both are visual images that are not under the conscious control of the viewer. Both are coded representations of an external reality.
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Dreams might be a natural result of neural net overloading in the central nervous system (CNS). During sleep when the neural net is disconnected from normal inputs and outputs, CNS nets produce outputs that are combinations of stored... more
Dreams might be a natural result of neural net overloading in the central nervous system (CNS). During sleep when the neural net is disconnected from normal inputs and outputs, CNS nets produce outputs that are combinations of stored associations. The system utilizes random input to repetitively weaken the associative connections connected with overload associated with perceptual input during waking. In this way the CNS undergoes a process of reverse learning that eliminates extraneous associative memories and neural connections. This theory purports to account for the association of rapid eye movement sleep dreams with random and bizarre intrusions of previously stored memories. The neurochemistry of dreaming indicates that the same drugs that affect an individual's waking consciousness affect the dreaming. It appears that dreaming is not a simple state triggered by acetylcholine and modulated by limited other neurotransmitters that are affected by only a few medications. Dreaming is a state affected by the same spectrum of neurochemicals that shape waking consciousness. Dreaming is likely to be based on several structural characteristics and mind-based cognitive processes including dreaming are among the most complex systems that still need to be understood.
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Neurochemists interested in dreaming have concentrated on the effects of neurochemicals on rapid eye movement sleep (REMS). The original and quite simple model of REMS neurochemistry is called the reciprocal interaction model. This... more
Neurochemists interested in dreaming have concentrated on the effects of neurochemicals on rapid eye movement sleep (REMS). The original and quite simple model of REMS neurochemistry is called the reciprocal interaction model. This theoretical model describes the interplay between two major neurotransmitter systems (aminergic and cholinergic) involved in REMS generation in the brain stem. The systems known to affect the generation of REMS include gamma-aminobutyrate (GABA), nitric oxide, glutamate, glycine, histamine, adenosine, dopamine, and other less well-described neuropeptides. Agents that suppress REMS such as ethanol and benzodiazepines such as valium induce episodes of REMS rebound during medication withdrawal. These REMS rebound episodes are associated with reports of nightmares and disturbed dreaming, and are considered the primary mechanism of drug-induced disordered dreaming and nightmares. Neuronal populations utilizing the neurotransmitters acetylcholine, serotonin, and norepinephrine have prominent roles in the control of the REM–non-REM sleep cycle. These neurotransmitters might function in a reciprocal interaction that also involves a wide spectrum of other neurotransmitters that interact in an intricate modulation of the stages of sleep. Almost all of the agents exerting their neurochemical effects on dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine induce altered dreaming and nightmares in some patients. Some medications appear to alter nightmare reporting by affecting an individual's conscious relationship to the environment (anesthetics) or host defense and immunology.
Many drugs induce sedation. Drug induced hypersomnolence has significant negative personal and social effects, including an involvement in at least one-third of motor vehicular accident (MVA) deaths 1. Drugs of abuse most often induce... more
Many drugs induce sedation. Drug induced hypersomnolence has significant negative personal and social effects, including an involvement in at least one-third of motor vehicular accident (MVA) deaths 1. Drugs of abuse most often induce hypersomnolence as a direct effect (ethanol, cannabis, opiates), or by potentiating sleep disturbances known to induce daytime sleepiness such as sleep apnea (ethanol, opiates) and chronic sleep deprivation (amphetamines). Drug induced sleepiness is among the most commonly reported effect and/or side effect of pharmacological agents 2. Sedating prescription medications are generally classified as: 1) hypnotics - short-acting agents clinically utilized to induce sleep with minimal effects on waking performance; 2) sedatives - agents that diminish arousal, and commonly produce sedation that affects both wake and sleep; and 3) agents utilized clinically for other purposes that produce sedation as a side effect. These categories are not concrete, and some drugs meet criteria for multiple categories.
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Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is arguably the most dangerous of sleep-associated diagnoses with a higher associated morbidity and mortality than any other commonly experienced sleep or psychiatric disorder. While multiple... more
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is arguably the most dangerous of sleep-associated diagnoses with a higher associated morbidity and mortality than any other commonly experienced sleep or psychiatric disorder. While multiple treatment modalities giving short-term symptomatic relief from symptoms are available, longer-term treatment cures are rare, so that for many of those affected PTSD becomes a life-long disorder. Many successful artists use their nightmares in their work. This small study (N=14) is based on a series of in-depth interviews with such artists, including an assessment of nightmare use in their work, any experience of trauma that may have contributed to their nightmares, and an assessment as to any past and current symptoms of PTSD. While some of these artists were best classified diagnostically as having Nightmare Disorder, a majority (11/14) of these successful artists had histories of significant trauma, and met DSM-V diagnostic criteria for PTSD. Their is some evidence that these individuals did their best creative work after their experiences of trauma. These findings suggest that for the artist, nightmare expression rather than suppression (the objective of most PTSD therapies) might be a reasonable therapeutic option.